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05

APRIL 1975

Rs. 35 (inland), £ 2 00 (Foreign)

Vol. 72, No. 1 Editors

1. C DANIEL, P. V. BOLE & A. N. D. NANAY ATI

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the * by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for perfora- tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under- lined.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison specimens actually collected.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8*20 x 5 60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written s^popsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing.

11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to pub- lish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Editors,

Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History Society .

Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

VOLUME 72 NO. 1 — APRIL 1975

Date of Publication : 30-4-1975

CONTENTS

The Sundarban of India and its biota. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee. (With a plate)

Status of the Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis johni in the Anamalai, Cardamom and Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats, India. By G. U. Kurup. ( With three maps)

Orchids of Nepal — 9. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. (With five text-figures)

A new species of spider of the genus Cheiracanthium Koch (Family Clubionidae) from India. By B. K. Tikader. (With four text- figures)

Some observations on birds at high altitude lake sides in Gosain- kund, central Nepal. By Hiroyuki Masatomi. (With a map)

A new species of Rotala from Palgliat, Kerala. By R. Vasudevan Nair. (With eighteen text-figures)

Observations on metamorphosing behaviour of Cybister larvae for development of control measures during pupal stage.

By G. A. Shirgur. (With a text- figure)

Pseudobrassaiopsis — A new genus of Araliaceae with a note on the status of Euaraliopsis Hutch. By R. N. Banerjee Belly-soaking in the Charadriiformes. By G. L. Maclean Observations on the occurrence and habits of juvenile fishes in the nearshore region of the Mandapam area. By K. V. Sekharan A new species and notes on the genus Anthoxanthum L. (Poaceae).

By S. K. Jain and D. C. Pal. (With three text-figures)

Bionomics and immature stages of the Barleria Lacebug Habrochila laeta Drake (Heteroptera : Tingidae). By K. Peethambaran Asari. (With two text-figures and three graphs)

Some observations on the colour changes of the Indian Chamae- leon. By V. S. Durve and H. S. Sharma. (With a plate)

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natu- ral History Society — 17. By Humayun Abdulali Temperature, salinity and Plankton of Daman Ganga Estuary. By P. Sitaramaiah

Food of Rana tigerina (Daud.). By S. Isaac and M. S. Rege The exotic Flora of Ranchi. By J. K. Maheshwari and S. R. Paul. (With a map)

Reviews :

1. Forced movements, tropisms & Animal conduct, (r. r.)

2. Under the Indian ocean, (r. n. gulati)

3. Turtles of the north-eastern United States, (shailaja s. somane)

4. Summer of a million wings, (s. A.)

5. Deer of the World, (j. c. D.)

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. A note on the Hoolock. By S. Theodore Baskaran (p. 194); 2. Urine of Bats as means of offence. By H. Khajuria (p. 194); 3. Occurrence of Fishing Cat ( Felis viverrina) in Orissa. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 195); 4. Age of sexual maturity of two species of wild carnivores in capti- vity. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 196); Some observations on the Wild

Dog in the Kanha National Park. By N. K. Sinha (p. 198).

Birds: 6. Whitetailed Eagles [Haliaeetus albicilla (Linn.)] at Bharatpur, Rajas- than. By P. A. Dukes, S. C. Madge, M. C. Robinson and C. W. Westwood

(p. 199); 7. A note on the feeding of the Sarus Crane Grus antigone antigone

(Linnaeus). By Ajai M. Ghorpade (p. 199); 8. On the nesting habits of the Small Minivet ( Pericrocotus cinnamomeus) . By Humayun Abdulali (p. 200); 9. Ornithological records for Pakistan. By. T. J. Roberts (p. 201); 10. A note on the bird predators of the Death’s Head Hawkmoth, Acherontia styx W. By

S. Thirumurthi and E. V. Abraham (p. 204) .

Reptiles: 11. A note on Testudo horsfieldi Gray, the Afghan Tortoise or Hors- field’s Four-toed Tortoise. By Tom J. Roberts (p. 206); 12. The Olive Keelback ( Atretium schistosum Russell) feeding on Mosquito larvae. By R. Whitaker (p. 209); 13. Geographical variation in toxicity of venom of the Cobra and extraction by vacuum method. By P. J. Deoras and N. E. Vad (p. 210).

Fishes: 14. On Psilocephalus barbatus (Gray), an interesting Balistoid Fish trawled off Ganjam Coast, Orissa. (With a text-figure) . By A. G. K. Menon and

T. K. Chatterjee (p. 213); 15. On the occurrence and breeding of Labeo rohita (Hamilton) in a section of Narbada River in Gujarat State. By S. J. Karam- chandani and P. K. Pandit (p. 215); 16. New records of offshore fishes from the west coast of India. By K. V. Rama Rao (p. 218); 17. A new species of Puntius (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) from Khasi & Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya), India. (With a text-figure) . By G. M. Yazdani and S. K. Talukdar (p. 218).

Acarina: 18. On two species of Ticks (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae) on a Tiger from Arunachal Pradesh. By A. K. Ghosh (p. 221).

Crustacea: 19. Preferential feeding in captivity by a Fresh water Crab, Pota- mon atkinsonianum Wood-Mason (Crustacea: Potamonidae) on Notonecta undulata (Insecta: Hemiptera). By B. D. Sharma (p. 222).

Xnsecta: 20. Record of new host-plants of four Agromyzids. By R. S. Gokulpure (p. 223); 21. New alternate host record of Leaf Roller, Marasmia trapezalis Gn. (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). By R. K. Patel, B. S. Choudhary and A. K. Khatri (p. 225); 22. Further collection of the Syrphidae (Diptera) from central India. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 226); 23. On a new subspecies of Aethus laticollis Wagner (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae) as a serious pest of Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.) in India. (With two text-figures). By M. S. K. Ghauri (p. 226).

Botany: 24. Datura suaveolens H. B. ex Willd. (Solanaceae) — from District Chamoli in western Himalayas. By K. N. Nautiyal (p. 229); 25. A note on the distribution of Spergularia rubra (Linn.) J. & C. Presl. (Caryophyllaceae) . By J. L. Bhat and S. Kumar (p. 230); 26. Notes on some interesting plants from south India — III. (With a photograph). By J. L. Ellis and M. S. Swaminathan (p. 230); 27. A new record of Meineckia parvifolia (Wight) Webster from India. By V. V. Sivarajan and K. S. Manilal (p. 237); 28. On fresh water 1 Phytal fauna of Visakhapatnam. By A. L. N. Sarma and C. Gopala Swamy (p. 237); 29. Diatoms of Nainital. By N. D. Kamat and Rita Aggarwal (p. 240).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1975 APRIL Vol. 72 No. 1

The Sundarban of India and its biota1

Ajit Kumar Mukherjee Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta ( With a plate)

Physiography

The Sundarban is a tropical humid forest belt that stretches from the Hooghly river (India) on the west to the Meghna river (Bangla- desh) in the east. It spreads over the southern part of three districts, namely, 24 Parganas (India), Khulna and Backarganj (Bangladesh). The boundary of the Sundarban within West Bengal is demarcated by the Raimangal and Hooghly rivers in the east and west respectively, and the Bay of Bengal in the south. The northern limit cannot be clearly defined due to progressive reclamation of the land over the last 150 years. The area lies approximately between 21° 0'-21° 21' N and 88°0'-89°0'E.

The forest spreads over the Gangetic delta which is low, flat and alluvial, and is intersected from north to south by several wide rivers, numerous sluggish winding creeks and is interspersed with lagoons.

The water in these creeks, pools and rivers is saline. The humid forests

y

1 Accepted August 27, 1971.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

which grow on such delta is known as ‘mangrove swamps’ and such forests stretch for about 240 kilometres (150 miles) from west to east and are approximately 48 kilometres (30 miles) wide. Out of 11520 sq. kilometres (4500 sq. miles) the total forest area of 4096 sq. kilo- metres (1630 sq. miles) is now under Indian administration. Of this area, 2320 sq. kilometres (997 sq. miles) are covered with forests and the rest is water (Mitra 1954). The principal rivers of the area have a general north-south course towards the sea. Some of these rivers join and lead to the estuaries, namely, Hariabhanga, Gusaba, Matla, Thakuran, Saptamukhi and Muriganga. The principal rivers which open into the estuaries by traversing the Sundarban from east to west are Kalindi, Raimangal, Jhilla, Gusaba, Bidya, Matla, Thakuran, Saptamukhi and Baratala. They are tidal rivers and receive three tides a day. The difference in the water levels between high and ebb tides varies from six metres (20 feet) to 20 centimetres (8 inches) depend- ing on the phase of the moon.

The estuarine islands of the Sundarban from east to west are Ban- gaduni, Dalhousie, Halliday, Bullcherry, Lothian, Farserganj (Mack- leenberg). Numerous islands in the estuaries are still under formation.

The formation of alluvial surface and the alteration of river courses in Lower Bengal has been discussed in detail by Oldham (1893). The meandering action of rivers in the low lying Sundarban area helps in the creation of innumerable islands. The silt and loam brought down by the rivers from the north and poured on to the continental shelf undergo partial transformation due to exchange reactions with sea water (Raychoudhuri et al. 1963, p. 51). These constituents remain in suspension and are forced into the creeks, channels and rivers by high tides. The constituents in suspension settle down due to gravitational force and are deposited on the bed and the salinised soil is gradually covered with mould. After the soil is stabilised, further deposition of alluvium helps in elevating the edges which give rise to a natural em- bankment and a saucer-shaped depression is formed inside where in the course of time signs of life become visible when the monsoon rains wash the salinity off the place. Some shrubs and trees take root and gradually a dense forest flourishes in a place which once was under water.

The soil of the Sundarban is generally clayey loam and grey to greyish-black in colour. Sandy and alkaline soils are found on islands facing the Bay and at many degraded places on the surface. Raychoud- huri et al. (op. cit., p. 40) gave the composition of the low lands of the 24-Parganas district as follows: ‘The soils in general are deficient in nitrogen which ranges from 0.02 to 0.09 per cent. The soils respond to application of nitrogenous fertilizers and give a yield increase of about 240 lbs. per acre. The phosphate in the soils varies from 0.1 to

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

3

0.15 per cent in the riverine and flat lands, and 0.06 to 0.1 in low lands. The pH of this soil ranges from 7.0 to 8.0 and potash varies from 0.3 to 1.0 per cent in the riverine and flat lands. Calcium oxide in the riverine and flat lands is high, ranging from 1.0 to 5.0 per cent.’

The soils of the Sundarban may be classified into four main cate- gories :

1. Matial : Clayey soil, whitish, loose and light in composition. When reclaimed it is rich in plant nutrition and supports a good culti- vation. It is also rich in calcium and magnesium and partially decom- posed matter.

2. Baliara or Dorosa : Loamy soil reddish in colour, retains mois- ture longer than the other three types of soil. Coarse paddy may be grown.

3. Dhap : Whitish soil, lies at higher levels than other classes. Salt is not washed off. This is degraded alkali soil and, therefore, only such coarse vegetation as thatch grass ( Ulu ), grows on it.

4. Dhal: Found on newly formed islands which get flooded either due to high tide or due to rain water. The soil is reddish in colour and cracks when dry. Nothing substantial grows on such land.

The rivers of the Sundarban are subject to tidal influence and are, therefore, saline. The rivers between Raimangal and Matla in the east and Muriganga and Hooghly on the west receive fresh water from the Ichhamati and Hooghly respectively, so that their salinity is greatly reduced. The increase in the salinity of the rivers of the western Sun- darban appears to be a recent phenomenon, which is evident from Major Rennel’s atlas of 1781 and Morrieson’s of 1811; in both some villages are shown along the Sundarban rivers where today only dense forests exist. Those villages had evidently been abandoned by later increase in the salinity of the adjacent rivers leading to failure of agri- culture.

Extreme climatic conditions do not prevail in the Sundarban. The network of creeks and rivers and the nearness of the Bay help in con- trolling the extreme climate. A typical tropical monsoon climate with excess of humidity is prevalent for about six months of the year, the day being moderately warm, equitable and humid, and there is a slow increase in the night temperature. The cold weather prevails from November to January and the rainfall during the period is negligible (mean of these three months is 2.5 cm). The mean maximum temper- ature for the years 1955-1960 is 30°C and the minimum 15°C. The temperature begins to rise from February and February, March and April are comparatively dry. Occasional thunder-storms accompanied by rains start from April. In May and October-November cyclonic storms occur. The cyclone causes high waves and combined with high tides frequently brings devastation to the area. The mean temperature

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

for six years (1955-1960 for February, March and April) is 31.8°C (maximum) and 26.6°C (minimum). The monsoon generally starts from the middle of June and continues till October, and the mean temperature slowly diminishes during the rainy season, but the humi- dity goes on increasing to 95 per cent. The total annual rainfall (aver- age of the above-mentioned six years) is 265 cm and the average of the monsoon months for those six years is 230 cm.

Biota

Flora

The vegetation of the Sundarban may be broadly classified as (a) the sea-face (beach forests), (b) the formative island flora, (c) the flora of the reclaimed low-lying cultivated tracts, and (d) the swamp forests.

The present forest area covers about 2320 sq. kilometres (997.9 sq miles) of the delta. Special type of the marsh vegetation composed of elements mainly of the Malay Peninsula and Polynesian regions, together with some Indo-Chinese, Ethiopian and a few of the New World, is represented in these estuarine islands, not found elsewhere execpt in a small part of Mahanadi and Godavari deltas and the Bay islands. Prain (1903) listed 334 species of plants in the Sundarban, and stated that the different possible means of dispersal and distribution of plants such as by sea and rivers, and by wind, bird and human agencies, have been responsible for introducing an interesting and complex flora in the area.

Champion (1936) classified the Sundarban forests as moist tropical serai forest type (primary serai type), which he described as (a) IS/ 1 beach forest and ( b ) 1S/2 tidal forests. The tidal forests are sub- divided into four sub-types, namely, 1S/2 (a) low mangrove forests, 1S/2 (b) tree mangrove forests, 1S/2 (c) salt-water Heritiera forests and 1S/2 (d) freshwater Heritiera forests. Except the low mangrove and the salt-water Heritiera forests the other types of tidal forests do not occur in the Sundarban that lies within the Indian territory.

Sea- face {beach) flora.

The beach forest occurs on the sea-face islands. Sea-sand blown by strong winds form low sand-dunes. The sands, together with lime form- ed from disintegrating shells and salt, give rise to a pronounced xero- phytic habitat, inspite of the facts that the rainfall in this area is over 125 cm (50 inches) and the subsoil water is just below half a metre or so. These conditions are very different from those prevailing in swamp islands, and thus provide a foothold for the littoral south-east Asian species. The islands are subject to strong north-western storms from

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

5

March till May and to cyclones which develop from Bay of Bengal in May and October-November. These cyclones cause considerable damage to the biota of the islands. The trees get uprooted and those that stand the rigours are stunted and deformed, devoid of branches and are more or less leafless. Savannah flourishes under such condi- tions. The sand-dunes are partially covered with tall brown spear-grass and a fence of shrubs and creepers immediately follows the sand-dunes.

A list of the more important species of plants occurring under such conditions are given below.

Species	Local name	Type of plant	Remark
Family Tamaricaceae
Tamarix troupii Family Leguminosae	Jhao	Shrub or tree	Grows up to 7 metres
Erythrina variegata Canavalia maritima Canavalia gladiata	Palita Mandar	Prickly tree Sand-binder, climber Extensive sand- binder, climber
Derris scandens	Nonalata	Large climber
Derris sinuata	Sundrilata	Climber
Caesalpinia bonducella	Nata	Large thorny climber
Family Ficoidae
Sesuvium portulacastrum	Noona	Extensive climber	Excellent sand-binder
Family Compositae
Wedelia scandens	Keshraj	Climber over bushes
Launaea sarmentosa		Herb	Sand-binder
Family Myrsineae
Aegiceras corniculatus	Kulsi	Tree	Grows up to 7 metres
Family Salvadoraceae
Azima tetracantha	Trikanta gati	Thorny shrub
Family Convolvulaceae
lpomoea pes-caprae	Chhagalburi	Herb	Very common, excellent sand-binder
Family Flagellariceae
Flagellaria indica	Kuh-bent	Cane-like climber
Family Cyperaceae
Pycreus polystachyos	Junglimodhi	Sedge	Sand-binder
Fimbristylis spp.	Halaiya	Sedge	Sand-binder
Family Gramineae
Oryza coarctata	Bani-Dhan	Perennial grass	excellent sand-binder

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY	NATURAL	HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.	72(1)
Phragmites karka	Nal	Tall reed-like
		grass	Sand-binder
Imperata cylindrica	Ulu	Wiry grass	-Do-
Zoysia martella		Wiry grass	-Do-
Saccharum spontaneum Family Malvaceae	Khagra	Tall grass
Hibiscus tiliaceus	Bhola	Heavy climber
Thespesia populnea	Paraspipal	Tree	Grows up to 10 metres
Family Polypodiaceae
Acrostichum aureum	Udobon	Fern	Bushy plant

Formative {new) Island or Bank Flora

The formation of a new bank is the outcome of natural process of erosion of the banks on one hand by sets of river current and on the other hand by the compensating acceleration of shelving alluvium on the opposite side. The formation of a new island has already been dis- cussed under topography. On these banks and islands “chars”, Oryza coarctata “Bani-Dhan” appears along with Sesuvium portulacastrum “Noona”. These are sometimes associated with Myriostachya wightiana at the river edge when such an edge drops suddenly into deep water. In the second line of succession a belt of undershrub bushes of Acanthus ilicifolius “Hargoza” and young Avicennia officinalis “Baen” appears. After these get established, Excoecaria agallocha “Gengwa”, and Rhizophora sp. “Goran”, Sonneratia sp. “Keora”, etc., are the last to establish themselves under protection of “Hargoza” and “Baen”. When all these shrubs and trees have properly established themselves, the grass disappears.

Forest flora

Sal t-w a t e r Heritiera Forest

Salt-water Heritiera forest is a low salinity forest that exists along the south-eastern border of West Bengal along Khulna District (Bangla- desh). Since freshwater of the Ichhamati River flows into the Raim- angal river, the rivers between the Raimangal and Matla have reduced salinity. This has helped in the growth of a fairly dense forest consist- ing of numerous species tolerant of such water. The average height of the forest trees is from 6 to 11 metres, but some trees like Sonnerita sp. “Keora” may attain a height of 20 metres or so. The girth of the trunk is moderate. In the sheltered bays and creeks mangrove occurs. The mangrove are largely Rhizophora “Garjan”, Bruguiera “Kankra”, Ceriops “Goran” and Avicennia “Baen”. Typical pneumatophores, that is, respiratory roots of Avicennia that project above soil, locally known as “shulas”, occur everywhere. The stilt roots of Rhizophora and Bruguiera are meant for support and are special adaptive features.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (1) Plate

Mukherjee: Sundarban

3 4

1. Fairly dense tail-tree forest; 2. A tidal creek flowing through dense low forest; 3. Morning exercise of water-birds at Sajnakhali forest; 4. Clusters of wild date- palm, a very common plant.

.......

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

7

Heritiera “Sundri” which is found scattered over areas of a slightly higher level does not seem to have natural satisfactory regeneration. Along with Heritiera, Sonneratia, Excoecaria, Carapa spp., from the upper storey. The palms, Phoenix paludosa “Hental” which commonly grows gregariously everywhere on higher elevations, and Nipa fruti - cans “Golpata” though present infrequently are met with on wet mud- banks along the creeks. Mangrove like Rhizophora and Bruguiera ex- hibit ‘vivipary’ (young plants germinate in the fruit while attached to the mother plant). It remains viable until the seed is able to find soil after it drops in water, which may take considerable time.

Low Mangrove Forest

The low mangrove forest which lies between Matla and Muriganga is absolutely devoid of fresh-water, since the rivers in this area are cut off from the ramifications of the Hooghly in the north.

The whole forest area is on soft tidal mud which gets submerged by salt-water at every tide. A dense forest of very low average height (3 to 6 metres) covers the area. Here the vegetation is identical to that of the preceding type, except that Sundri and Golpata are practically absent. The trees are evergreen and cluster gregariously, the leaves are leathery and the seeds are viviparous. The most common trees are Ceriops sp. “Goran” and Avicennia “Baen” which occupy extensive areas but grow only up to two metres. The clusters of Phoenix sp. “Hental” are extremely common.

A list of some important trees, shrubs and grass which compose the flora of this type of forest is given below:

Species	Local name	Type of plant
Family Meliaceae
Amoora cucullata	Amur	Tree
Xylocarpus moluccensis	Passur	Tree
Carapa obovata	Dhundul	Tree
Family Leguminosae
Afzelia bigugata	Bhaila	Tree
Cynometra ramiflora	Singra	Tree
Family Rhizophoraceae
Rhizophora Candelaria	Goran	Tree
Rhizophora conjugata	Goran	Tree
Rhizophora apiculata	Goran	Tree
Ceriops tagal	Goran	Tree
Ceriops roxburghiana	Goran	Tree
Bruguiera gymnorhiza	Kankra	Tree
Family Lythraceae
Sonneratia apetala	Keora	Tree
Family Vebenaceae
Avicennia officinalis	Baen	Tree
Avicennia alba	Baen	Tree

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Family Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha Family Palmae Phoenix paludosa

Flora of the Reclaimed Area

The reclaimed cultivated tracts are low lying islands which some two hundred years ago were covered with dense forest. Gradual de- forestation, cordoning of the islands with high embankments, and re- peated monsoon washing of the salinity of the soil made the area culti- vable. Many tanks were dug out filling up with rain-water to meet man’s requirement of freshwater from the beginning of the human settlement in these reclaimed islands. Various trees and other plants were also introduced. Thus, a complex flora of the original Sundarban species together with some plants from other parts of India and even from abroad are found there today. A list of the more familiar in- troduced plants are given below:

Species	Local name	Type of plant
Family Rhamnaceae
Zizyphus mauritiana	Kul	Small tree
Family Leguminosae
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus	Guar	Annual crop (60- 100 cm)
Sesbania grandiflora	Bokphul	Soft-wood tree
Tamarindus indica	Tentul	Large tree
Parkinsonia aculeata	Belati kikar	Hedge
Acacia nilotica	Babul	Shrub or tree
Family Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica	Neem	Large tree
Family Myrtaceae
Psidium guajava	Payara	Small tree
Family Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus polygamus	Champanote	Pot herb
Family Palmae
Areca catechu	Supari	Palm
Cocos nucifera Family Graminae	Narikel	Large palm
Oryza sativa	Dhan	Cultivated crop
Some important common herbs.	shrubs, and	grasses that are met
with in the rice fields and around the villages are listed below:
Species Family Leguminosae	Local name	Type of plant
Phaseolus adenanthus	Ban barbati	Climber
Derris sineata	Natua	Prickly shrub

Gengwa Tree

Hental Palm

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

9

Family Cucurbitaceae Coccinia cordifolia Trichosanthes cucumerina Family Rubiaceae lxora coccinea Family Compositae Spaeranthus africanus Family Asclepiadaceae Sarcolobus globosus Family Amaranthaceae

Psilotrichum ferrugineum Family Liliaceae

Asphodelus tenuifolius Family Typhaceae

Typha angustata Family Graminae Paspalum scrobiculatum Panicum sp.

Andropogon aciculatus Phragmites karka Arundo donax

Ban chinhinga Ban chinhinga

Rangan

Kantapalang

Baolilata

Rakto-siranchi

Hogla

Kodo Dhan

Bharanda

Chorkanta

Nal

Sukna

Besides the flora of the northern plains a number occur in the reclaimed area along embankments and Such species are:

Species Local name

Family Leguminosae

Canavalia gladiata	—
Vigna luteola	—
Derris trifoliata	Panlata
Pongamia pinnata	Koronja
Caesalpinia crista	Singrilata
Family Compositae
Wedelia sp.	Bhimarj
Family Myrsineae
Aegiceras corniculatum	Khalsi
Family Verbenaceae
Avicennia officinalis	Baen
Family Lythraceae
Sonneratia ape tala	Keora
Family Rubiaceae
Morinda bracteata	Barachand
Family Plubagineae
Aegialitis rotundifolia	Satari
Family Euphorbiaceae
Excoecaria agallocha	Gengwa

Climber

Climber

Shrub

Climber

Large climber

Tall reed

Tall tufted grass Coarse grass Tufted coarse grass Reed

Reed like grass

of littoral species edges of creeks.

Type of plant

Extensive climber

Climber

Shrub

Tree

Shrub

Creeper

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Family Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius Family Cyperaceae	Nonajhar	Shrub
Cyperus articulatum	—	Grass
Family Palmae Phoenix paludosa	Hental	Palm

Fauna

Forest Fauna

The extensive saline swamp-forests of the Sundarban spread over the greater part of the sea-face of West Bengal, are inhospitable for animals due to lack of sweet water. In these marshy tropical jungles which flourish on the islands that are washed by the tidal waters of sea, the animals that have adapted themselves by adjusting their habits are very few. Of them, special mention may be made of the Tiger, Panthera tigris (Linnaeus), which is dreaded, since all without excep- tion, are said to be maneaters: the Estuarine Crocodile, Crocodylus porosus (Schneider), lies in wait for its prey on shores and creeks on soft mud of the tidal flats between bayonet-like stilt and knee roots, where walking is difficult and man sometimes becomes its victims; and the large poisonous snake, the King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor).

A hundred years ago the Sundarban forests were the home of many wild animals, some of which like the Javan Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros sondiacus Desmarest, and the Wild Buffalo, Bubalus bubalis (Linn- aeus) are no longer there. The last record of the Rhinoceros from this area is based on the specimen collected in 1870 and preserved in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta and the Wild Buffalo was known to have existed up to 1885. It is said that the Swamp Deer, Cervus duvauceli Cuvier, Muntjac, Muntiacus muntjak Zimmermann, and the Fishing Cat, Felis viverrina Bennet, existed on these swamp-islands, but these have not been recorded in recent years from the Sundarban forests that lie in West Bengal.

An exhaustive faunistic report is not within the scope of the pre- sent paper. However, commoner animals encountered by me in the course of visits during 1955-1960 to the area and those found by others are mentioned below.

VERTEBRATES

Mammals :

The order primates is represented by a single species, the Rhesus Monkey, Macaca muiatta (Zimmermann). Mukherjee & Gupta (1965) have studied the peculiar habits of this monkey and its specialised

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

11

adaptation to the estuarine island life, where freshwater is not available at all except rain-water, rendering such areas normally unsuitable for primate life. The other mammals are the Tiger, Panther a tigris (Linnae- us) which leads an almost amphibious life in swamps, moving from one island to another by swimming through the large rivers and creeks, and during tidal bores it clings to low mangrove branches or is driven to elevated parts of some islands restricting its movement till normal conditions are restored. Its man-hunting is perhaps due to its inability to obtain sufficient food under such adverse conditions, as it is unable to kill the deer or pig that are found on these islands.

In the tidal rivers, the commonest aquatic mammal is the Little Porpoise or the Black Finless Porpoise, Neomeris phocaenoides (Cuvier). The other Cetacea that frequent the tidal waters are Orcella hrevirostris (Owen) and Stolia plumba Cuvier.

Birds

Sundarban forest has a wealth of waterbirds. Birds such as herons, egrets, storks, ibises, cormorants, shags, darters, etc. which nest in colonies find these forest areas safe and convenient for their living and breeding. The, discovery of the existence of a natural bird sanctu- ary, namely, ‘Pakhirala’ at Sajnakhali in this area has already been reported by Mukherjee (1955).

Resident species :

1. White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham)

2. Openbill Stork Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert)

3. Adjutant Stork Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin)

4. Blacknecked Stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham)

5. Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus (Linnaeus)

6. Swamp Partridge or Kyah Francolinus gularis (Temminck)

7. Blackcapped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata (Boddaert)

8. Whitecollared Kingfisher Halcyon chloris (Boddaert)

9. Brownwinged Kingfisher Pelargopsis amauroptera (Pearson) (Prefers broad tidal rivers)

Seasonal visitors :

1 . Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus)

2. Curlew Numenius arquata (Linnaeus) (Occasional)

3. Blacktailed Godwit Limosa limosa (Linnaeus)

4. Little Stint Calidris minutus (Leisler)

5. Dunlin Calidris alpinus (Linnaeus)

6. Eastern Knot Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield)

7. Curlew-sandpiper Calidris testaceus (Pallas)

8. Greenshank Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus)

9. Terek Sandpiper Tringa terek (Latham)

10. Snipebilled Godwit Limnodromus semipalmatus (Blyth)

Rare visitors :

1 . Giant Heron Ardea goliath Cretzschmar

2. Spottedbilled Pelican Pelecanus philippensis Gmelin

3. Herring Gull Lams argentatus Pontoppidan

4. Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis Lesson

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

5. Large Crested Tern Sterna bergii Lichtenstein

6. Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata Linnaeus

There are several species of smaller perching birds that frequent the forests such as flycatchers, warblers, pipits, wagtails. Blyth’s Man- grove Whistler, Pachycephala grisola Blyth is sometimes observed among the wild date palm clusters.

R e p t i 1 i a

The reptilian fauna is represented by snakes, lizards, and crocodile. No chelonians are known from the area.

1 . Keelback Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus)

Common species :

2. Hurriah Enhydris enhydris (Schneider)

3. Hydrophis obscurus (Daudin)

4. Gerardia prevostiana (Eydoux & Gervais)

5. Wart Snake Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider)

Uncommon estuarine species'.

1 . Hydrophis nigrocinctus (Daudin)

2. Hydrophis caerulescens (Shaw)

3. Microcephalophis cantoris (Gunther)

Terrestrial snakes:

1. Cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus)

2. King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor)

3. Whip Snake Ahaetulla nasutus (Lacepede)

4. Indian Python Python molurus (Linnaeus)

Lizards :

1. Water monitor Varanus salvator (Laurenti)

2. Monitor Lizard Varanus flavescens (Gray)

There is a single species of crocodile, the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus (Schneider), which inhabits the lower reaches of the tidal rivers.

Amphibia

Amphibians on these islands are very few. The toad, Bufo mel- anostictus Schneider, is sometimes seen in certain elevated parts. The tree frog, Rhacophorus maculatus (Gray), is quite common.

Fishes

The fishes are brackish water and marine forms, freshwater ones being totally absent.

The tidal rivers and creeks which flow through forest blocks and the estuaries that surround the forested islands on the sea-face contain varied species of sharks and brackish water fishes. The species of sharks that are commonly met with belong to the genera, Chiloscy Ilium, Stego- stoma, Scoliodon, Carcharhinus, Rhinobatus and Dasyatis.

There are several species of Teleostomi of which a few important and common species that are commercially exploited are:

Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton) Anguilla bicolor McClelland

1 1 is ha filigera (Valenciennes) Muraena tile (Hamilton)

Raconda russelliana Gray Muraenesox cinereus (Forskal)

Nematalosa nasus (Bloch) Pisoodonophis boro (Hamilton)

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

13

Anodontostoma chacunda (Hamil- ton)

Setipinna taty (Valenciennes) Harpodon nehereus (Hamilton) ‘Nehere’

Tachysurus jella (Day)

Tachysurus caelatus (Valenciennes) Tachysurus gagora (Hamilton) Tachysurus maculatus (Thunberg) Tachysurus sagor (Hamilton) Tachysurus sona (Hamilton)

Mystus gulio (Hamilton) ‘Gule’ Anguilla bengalensis (Gray)

Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton) Strongylura strongylura (van Has- selt)

Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)

Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland) Mugil parsia Hamilton Mugil fade Forskal Polynemus heptadactylus Cuvier Polynemus paradiseus Linnaeus Eleutheronema tetradactylus (Bloch) ‘Gurjaoli’

Lates calcarifer (Bloch) ‘Bhetki’

The sea-fishes that enter the backwaters are:

Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus) ‘But- terfish’

Stromateus cinereus (Bloch) White Pomfret

Parastromateus niger (Bloch) Black Pomfret

Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen)

Datnioides quadrifasciatus (Sevasti- anov)

Leiognathus blochii (Valenciennes)

Otolithes maculatus Cuvier Sparus datnia (Hamilton)

T oxotes chatareus (Hamilton) Brachirus pan (Hamilton) Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede) Cynoglossus lingua Hamilton ‘Tongue Sole’

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede) Mastacembelus pancalus (Hamilton) Macrognathus aculeatum (Bloch)

Pama pama (Hamilton)

The goggle-eyed Gobiids attract the attention of every person due to their active, frog-like hopping on exposed mud-flats, specially during ebb-tide. Generally two species occur, Periopthalmus keelreuteri (Pallas) and Boleopthalmus boddaerti (Pallas) and several other species. They are not of commercial importance.

Invertebrates :

The invertebrates that are found in the forest area are more or less are represented in the reclaimed area also, except some crop-pests and freshwater animals, and have been listed under that chapter (pp. 17- 19). Oligochaeta have been, scanty, whereas several species of Polycha- etes are found burrowing in the mud, such as, Ficomatus macrodon Southern, Mercierella enigmatica Fauvel, Dendronerius estuarina Fauvel, Pomatoceros caeruleus Schmard). The Gastropods that are found on the mud banks and in the wet places in the interior of the forests are Nerita sp., Telescopium sp., Melongena sp., Ceratoda sp., Onchidium sp. The Bivalva is represented by Area, sp., and several species of Teredo which are borers of mangrove tree-trunks that get submerged in tidal water. Arthropods are well represented on land and water. An interesting example is the ‘Living Fossil’, the King Crab, Carcinos- corpius rotundicauda (Latreille), which is not uncommon in the shal- low waters of the sea-facing islands, sometimes it crawls ashore. The low-forest trees are often found to bear combs of the Rock-Bee ( Apis

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

dorsata). The combs sometimes grow so large that they are hardly a few feet above the ground. Insects affecting forest timbers are many. Mention may be made of the Cerambycids, borer-beetles, that cause alarming damage to Goran, Keora, Garjan, Dhudul etc. With nightfall the dark forests of Sundarban glitter with fireflies ( Pteroptyx sp.) and the water of the rivers and channels also pulsates with luminiscent life, in the plankton.

Fauna of the reclaimed area

The reclamation of the land which rose from mud and clay by deforestation and human settlement has upset the ecology, resulting in the disappearance of major part of the wildlife. What exists today in these cultivated tracts are some common forms of birds and aquatic fauna of the tidal creeks, common to both the reclaimed and the forest- ed areas. From the northern part of the district some animals have immigrated and have established themselves in the reclaimed area, for example, the jackal, fox, civet cats, mongoose and rats. Freshwater fishes have been introduced in the freshwater (sweet-water) tanks, and various insect pests have appeared on cultivated crops which were not known when these areas were covered with virgin forests.

The fauna is represented by practically every group of animal though the higher vertebrates, specially the mammals, are poorly re- presented.

Vertebrates

Mammalia

The mammals in the reclaimed area are few.

Suncus murinus (Linnaeus) House Shrew

Felis chaus (Guldenstaedt) Jungle Cat

Felis bengalensis (Kerr) Leopard Cat Canis aureus (Linnaeus) Jackal Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw) Indian Fox

Viverricula indica (Desmarest) Indian Civet

Herpestes edwardsi ( Geoff roy) Com- mon Gray Mongoose Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton) Five-striped Squirrel Mus booduga (Gray) Field Mouse Mus musculus (Linnaeus) House Mouse

Bandicota indica (Bechstein) Bandi- coot Rat

Rattus rattus (Linnaeus) Common Rat

Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) Short- nosed Fruit Bat

Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke)

Megaderma lyra (Geoffroy) Indian False Vampire

Rhinopoma hardwickii (Gray) Les- ser Rat-tailed Bat

Hipposideros bicolor (Temminck) Bicoloured Leafnosed Bat

Pipistrellus mimus (Wroughton) Pigmy Pipistrelle

Scotophilus temmincki (Horsfield) Lesser Yellow Bat

SVNDARBAN OF INDIA

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Birds

Marsh birds

Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus) Cattle Egret

Egretta intermedia (Wagler) Smal- ler Egret

Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus) Little Egret

Egretta alba (Linnaeus) Large Egret

Ardea purpurea (Linnaeus) Purple Heron

Ardea cinerea (Linnaeus) Grey Heron

Butorides striatus (Linnaeus) Little Green Bittern

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) Night Heron

Ardeola grayii (Sykes) Pond Heron

Metopidius indicus (Latham) Bron- zewinged Jacana Freshwater Marshes

Gallinula chloropus , (Linnaeus) Moorhen

Hydro phasianus chirurgus (Scopoli) Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus) Painted Snipe

Charadrius dubius (Scopoli) Little Ringed Plover

Open Water

Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas) Dabchick

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin) Cotton Teal

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield) Lesser Whistling Teal

Anas crecca (Linnaeus) Common Teal

Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) Brah- miny Duck

Anas acuta (Linnaeus) Pintail

Aythya nyroca (Guldenstadt) White- eyed Pochard

Netta rufina (Pallas) Redcrested Pochard

Sandbanks

Tringa hypoleucos (Linnaeus) Com- mon Sandpiper

Tringa gl areola (Linnaeus) Wood Sandpiper

Calidris minutus (Leisler) Little Stint

Capella gallinago (Linnaeus) Fan- tail Snipe

Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus) Whimbrel

In the vast cultivated tracts, the Openbilled Storks, Anastomus osci- tans (Boddaert) feed on snails from paddy-fields, and are seen with the Redwattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus (Boddaert).

The birds of prey found in the area are:

Spilornis cheela (Latham) Crested Serpent Eagle

Haliaeetus leucoryphus (Pallas) Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin) Whitebellied Sea Eagle

Haliastur indus (Boddaert) Brahminy Kite

Milvus migrans (Boddaert) Pariah Kite

Accipiter badius (Gmelin) Shikra

Accipiter trivirgatus (Temminck) Crested Goshawk

lcthyophaga ichthyaetus (Horsfield) Greyheaded Fishing Eagle

Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus) Osprey

Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus) Marsh Harrier

Falco peregrinus (Tunstall) Pereg- rine Falcon

Falco severus (Horsfield) Oriental Hobby

Falco tinnunculus (Linnaeus) Kes- trel

Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin) White- backed Vulture

Tyto alba (Scopoli) Barn Owl

Otus scops (Linnaeus) Scops Owl

Athene brama (Temminck) Spotted Owlet

Bubo zeylonensis (Gmelin) Brown Fish Owl

Bubo bubo (Linnaeus) Great Horn- ed Owl

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

A few species of terns, and kingfishers are seen on the larger rivers and in flooded areas. These are:

Gelochlidon nilotica (Gmelin) Gull- billed Tern

Sterna bergii (Lichtenstein) Large Crested Tern

Sterna bengalensis (Lesson) Indian Lesser Crested Tern Rynchops albicollis (Swainson) In- dian Skimmer

Larus brunnicephalus (Jerdon)

Brown headed Gull Larus ridibundus (Linnaeus) Black- headed Gull

Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas) Whis- kered Tern

Hydroprogne caspia (Pallas) Cas- pian Tern

Besides, there are many species of doves, cuckoos, parakeets, rollers, barbets, woodpeckers, larks, swallows, drongos, crows, tree pie, shrikes, bulbuls, babblers, flycatchers, warblers, thrushes, pipits, sunbirds, flowerpeckers, and finches and other birds, which are not specifically mentioned, for Law (1954, 1956) has already published observational reports about the ornithology of the Sundarban.

Sterna aurantia (J. E. Gray) Indian River Tern

Sterna hirundo (Linnaeus) Common Tern

Sterna albifrons (Pallas) Little Tern Sterna fuscata (Linnaeus) Sooty Tern

Ceryl rudis Lesser Pied Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus) White-breasted Kingfisher Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus)

Halcyon chloris (Boddaert) White- collared Kingfisher Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) Black- capped Kingfisher

R e p t i 1 i a :

The reptiles in the reclaimed area are represented by snakes and lizards.

The snakes comprise both terrestrial and aquatic forms. The terres- trial snakes are met with in fields and cultivation.

Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus) Rat Snake

Vipera russelli (Shaw) Russell’s Viper

Naja naja kaouthia (Lesson) Indian Cobra

Oligodon arnensis (Shaw) Kukri Snake

Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus) Wolf Snake

Eryx conicus (Schneider) Russell’s Sand Boa

Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider) Common Checkered Keelback

Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus) Stri- ped Keelback

Enhydris enhydris (Schneider) Hur- riah

Hydrophis obscurus (Daudin)

Gerardia prevostiana (Eydoux & Gervais)

Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider) Wart Snake

In the saline waters of rivers and creeks turtles and terrapins are sometimes come across:

Lizards :

Varanus flavescens (Gray) Calotes versicolor (Daudin)

Varanus salvator (Laurenti) Chamaeleon zeylanicus (Laurenti)

SVNDARBAN OF INDIA

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Turtles:

Pelochelys bibroni (Owen) Coast Soft Shell

Morenia ocellata (Dumeril & Bibron) Bengal Eyed Terrapin Batagur baska (Gray) Batagur

Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschschottz) Ridley Turtle

Geomyda tricarinata (Blyth) Three- keeled Terrapin

In the tidal rivers and creeks no frogs have been seen. In the water- puddles which are formed as a result of rainfall and in perennial sweet- water reservoirs, the amphibians that are met with are:

Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. ‘Chine- Rana tiger ina Daudin. ‘Sona-beng’ beng’ Bufo melanostictus Schneider. ‘Kuno-

Rana hexadactyla Lesson. ‘Pati Beng’ beng’. Very common. Dry land.

Rana limnocharis Wiegmann. ‘Dhani- Microhyla ornata ‘Dumeril & Bib- beng’ ron’. Smallest frog in the area.

The fishes that are found in the sweet-water pools of the reclaimed areas are:

Introduced species Labeo rohita (Hamilton). Rui Labeo calbasu (Hamilton). Kalbose Labeo gonius (Hamilton)

Catla catla (Hamilton). Katla Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton) . Mrigal Puntius sp. ‘Punti’

Danio sp.

Chela, sp. ‘Chela’

Ambassis sp. ‘Rangachanda’ Notopterus sp. ‘Pholui’

Rita sp. ‘Rita’

Mud fishes

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede) and M. pancalus (Hamilton). Channa gachua (Hamilton). Pank- achaks

Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland). Techoko.

Cat fishes

Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus) Heter- opneustes fossilis (Bloch)

The other brackish water fishes which get into creeks of the reclaim- ed area have been dealt separately under the fauna of the forest area.

INVERTEBRATA

The common invertebrates of the area are represented by the Phyla Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Annelida.

M o 1 1 u s c a :

Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes) Pila sp. (Widely dispersed by the monsoon waters)

Arthropoda Crustacea :

Freshwater

Viviparus bengalensis (Lamarck) Melanoides tuberculatus (Muller) Melanoides scabra (Muller) Lymnaea acuminata (Lamarck)

Several species of crustaceans abound in freshwater ponds and jheels. The smaller prawns commonly found in freshwater are:

Macrobrachium lamarrei (Milne- Caridina gracilipes de Man. ‘Ghunso Edward). ‘Kuncho chingri’ chingri’

Leander styliferus (Milne-Edward) Macrobrachium rude (Heller). ‘Goda

chingri’

2

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During the monsoon very large number of prawns find their way from the brackish water into the paddy fields. In such flooded fields two species are met with:

Metapenaeus brevicornis Milne-Edward, ‘Dhanboni chingri’ Metapenaeus monoceros Fabricius, ‘Koraney chingri’

The most common crab in the paddy fields during the monsoon is the small grapsid crab Varuna litterata (Fabricius), ‘Chiti kankra’. In brackish water the common forms met with are: Scylla serrata (Forskal), Portunus pelagicus (Finnaeus), Portunus sanguinolentus (Herbst). Matuta victor Fabricius, which is also found in the tidal rivers but appears to be less common there. The common crab that attracts attention is the orange-coloured Fiddler Crab ( Uca sp.) which actively moves about on mud-flats during ebb-tide in large numbers. The fresh- water crabs are: Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) jacquemontii (Rathbun), and Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) spinigera Wood-Mason are found in smaller numbers in freshwater tanks and flooded paddy fields. They appear to have been introduced by human agency. Certain deep bur- rows in soft mud banks of tidal creeks are the homes of the Ghost Crab, Thalacina anomala Herbst, which looks more or less like Fobsters hence it is locally known as ‘Patal Chingri’.

Insecta :

The reclaimed areas which now are used for extensive cultivation of paddy have large number of insect pests that were probably not known in these areas a century ago when the islands were covered with forests. They appear to have followed paddy cultivation. Besides, there are several insects of minor significance, terrestrial as well as aquatic. It is not worthwhile to furnish a list of all insects that occur there but some more important pests of agricultural crops which were observed during 1955-1965 and some of the commoner aquatic bugs, beetles and dragonflies are mentioned below:

The agricultural pests, mainly of paddy, were found in the sprouting ears of A us, and the nurseries of Aman crop.

Rice Thrips Hispa ( Dicladispa ) armigera Oliver Paddy Curculionid Tanymecus indicus Faust Some lepidopterus larvae are:

Swarming Caterpillar Spodoptera mauritia (Boisduval)

Rice Caseworm Nymphula depunctalis Guenee Paddy Jassid Nephotettix bipunctatus Fabricius

During September and October when young plants of Aman paddy crop attained a height of 15 to 30 cm, the infection by caterpillars and thrips were appreciably reduced. The additional pests that were noticed then were: Ricehopper Hieroglyphus banian Fabricius which cause appreciable damage and Paddy Mealybug Riper sia oryzae Green which was found infecting certain plots only, specially those near swamp

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

19

areas having reeds and tall grass. By December when the paddy was almost mature some paddy pests other than these mentioned above were found: Surface Grasshopper ( Acrotylus sp.). Blue Beetle Haltica cyanea Weber, flower feeding Blister Beetle Epicauta sp. which affect- ed the paddy-ears to a great extent. A large number of bugs invaded standing crop to suck the sap of shoots and ears of paddy. Such bugs

were:

Gandhi Bug Leptocorisa acuta Thun- berg

Caterpillars that were found affecting paddy-shots were :

Paddy Skippers Pelopidas mathias (Fabricius)

In freshwater or slightly brackish water pools and tanks aquatic insects and their larval stages were found in plenty.

Paddy Leafroller Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenee Striped Bug Tetroda sp.

Climbing Cutworm Cirphis unipuncta Haworth

Bugs:

Nepid Bug Laccotrephes robustus Stal

Ranatra elongata Fabricius Belostomid Bug Belostoma indicum Lep. & Serv.

Enithares indica Fabricius Plea sp.

Micronecta proba Distant Micronecta striata Freb.

Water-beetles :

Eretes stictus Linnaeus Laccophilus flexuosus Aube Laccophilus parvulus Aube Canthydrus laetabilis (Walker) Gyrinids

Dineutes indicus Aube Hydrophilus olivaceus Fabricius Dragonflies :

Ischnura sp.

Ceriagrion sp.

Neurothemis sp.

Agriocnemis sp.

Pseudagrion sp.

Damselflies :

Brachythemis sp.

Acisoma sp.

Neurothemis sp.

Pant ala sp.

Crocothemis sp.

Arachnida :

The Arachnida are represented by several species of spiders (Ara- nae). The commoner species that frequent paddy-fields are Argiopids, namely, Leucage decorata Blackwell and Araneus mitifica (Thorell). These are found on paddy-shoots as well as in bushes near about paddy- fields. Among tall grasses and standing crop a very common species, Ecuta jav anica Thorell, was met with and also two species of Lycocids, the new web-fcrming, Iiippasa sp. whose webs become prominent with dew early in the morning. The common grass spider Oxopes sp. is often noticed on ones clothing when one moves through paddy cultivation.

Annelida

Oligochaeta: The commonest species of Oligochaeta that are found in the reclaimed area belong to the genus Pheretima, although Perionyx and Eutyphoeus, Dichogaster, Megascolex, Helodrilus, Chaetogaster also occur. In some of the stagnant pools Limnodrilus socialis Stephens was found in great abundance in tangled masses.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

Polychaeta: A small polychaete worm, Mercierella enigmatica Fauvel which burrows in the mud, was found in great numbers.

Echiurida: In the entertidal mud flats of rivers are found the echiu- rids which live in ‘U’-shaped burrows. The esturine echiurids of Sundar- ban are represented by three species or perhaps more, the commoner species being Annalassorhynchus branchirhynchus (Annandale & Kemp).

References

Acharji, M. N. & Mukherjee, A. K. (1964): Report on a collection of Snakes from Lower Bengal (Rep- tilia: Ophidia). J. zool. Soc. India 16 (1 & 2) :76-81.

Champion, H. G. (1936): A pre- liminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian For. Rec. (N. S.) 7(1) :286.

Law, S. C. (1954): A contribution to the ornithology of the Sundarbans. /. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 27: 59-65.

(1956): A contribution

to the ornithology of the Sundarbans. ibid. 28: 149-152.

Mitra, A. (1954): Census 1951.

West Bengal District Handbook, 24- Parganas, Calcutta.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1959): Pak- hirala, Sajnakhali — an introduction to a bird sanctuary in the Sundarbans.

/ J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 30: 161-165.

& Gupta, S.

(1965) : Habits of the Rhesus Maca- que, Macaca mulatto (Zimmermann) in the Sundarbans, 24-Parganas, West Bengal. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 145-146.

Oldham, R. D. (1893): A Manual of the Geology of India : Stratigra- phical and structural Geology (2nd ed.): 432-444.

Prain, D. (1903) : Flora of the

Sundarbans. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 2: 231-390.

Roychoudhury, S. P., Agarwal,

R. R., Dutta Biswas, N. R., Gupta,

S. P. & Thomas, P. K. (1963): Soils of India. New Delhi.

Smyth, R. (1858): Statistical and geographical report on the 24 Par- gunnahs District. Calcutta Rev. 31 : 385-411.

Status of the Nilgiri Langur,

Anamalai, Cardamom and Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats, India1

G. U. Kurup

Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, MadrasA {With three maps)

The Southern Regional Station of the Zoological Survey of India has been conducting a faunistic survey of the Western Ghats with special reference to Wildlife. One species of special concern was the Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis johni, which on account of a mistaken popular belief in the medicinal or aphrodisiac properties of its flesh, has been persecuted to the verge of extinction. The survey could be carried out only for a month in each year and beginning from the year 1968, representative areas in the Anamalais, Cardamom, and Nilgiri Hills have been visited so far. Anamalais were surveyed during Jan.- Feb. 1968, Cardamom Hills during Feb-March 1969, and Nilgiris during Jan. -Feb. 1971. Results at present are largely impressions and estimates of a subjective nature, which however, are presented here in view of total lack of such surveys and information on this threaten- ed species. A brief account of its present status in each area is given below :

The Anamalai segment of the Western Ghats lies approximately between 10°1'-10°30' N, and 76°30' - 77°15' E, covering parts of Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu and parts of Idikki district of Kerala. The hills are divisible into higher and lower ranges. Average

in the

Anamalai ranges

1 Accepted May 5, 1973.

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

elevation of lower ranges is not more than 700 m with peaks and ridges rising to 1300 to 1600 m and mostly covered with luxurient forest. The higher ranges lying to the west consist of extensive open grassy hills

Map 1. Map of Western Ghats showing the three major ranges in which surveys

were conducted.

STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

23

and valleys with shola (slope) forests similar to those of Nilgiris and Palnis and varying from c 2000 to 2900 m in elevation. The chief forest types include: (1) Tropical Wet Evergreen forest between 700 to 1600 m in elevation where the trees reach a height of 50 m or more with dense canopy differentiated into layers (2) Tropical Moist Deciduous holding the most remunerative teak forests situated at about 700 to 1300 m in altitude and with a rainfall of 100-250 cm. Trees reach an average height of c 35 m (3) Tropical Dry Deciduous forest occurring at the foot of the Hills with open canopy of deciduous trees with con- siderable undergrowth of grass and (4) Wet Temperate Forest com- mencing from c. 1600 m and mostly confined to summits and consist- ing of vast stretches of grassland interspersed by compact groves of short and branchy evergreen trees.

Altogether 26 stations were visited for the survey which form a representative sampling of the range of the species. It became fairly certain after the survey that the Nilgiri Langur is at present totally confined to the first two types of forests namely the Tropical Wet Ever- green and Tropical Moist Deciduous which together range in elevation from 700 to 1600 m. Within these two forest types, habitat selection was found to be considerably influenced by presence or absence of human habitation, the langurs having generally withdrawn from their proximity. One exception to this was found at Topslip, a forest official’s colony in the Thunacadavu range, where a troop had selected its sleep- ing quarters in the forest fringe right behind the forest rest house. This is understandable as the animals were assured of protection. Settle- ments of a largely rural nature like forest villages and tribal hamlets occur within the habitat range. By and large the distribution in the general range was found to be rather patchy, with preferred pockets even in seemingly contiguous, suitable areas. One of the most import- ant influences in the selection of such habitat-pockets was the presence or absence of streams or water courses, the langur establishing itself in the vicinity of such streams. Another factor influencing preference was open or cleared patches within the forests, the troops generally adopt- ing such areas as their sleeping quarters. This is no doubt due to the increased visibility making possible early detection of potential danger.

In the Thunacadavu range of south Coimbatore Division and adja- cent forests, troops were seen, heard or reliably reported from areas like Kuchmalai, Thekkadi reserve forest, Anapadi, Sungam, Thunaca- davu, Topslip, Thillikal etc, (see map 2). In the Punachi range of the same Division they occur in the forests around lower slopes of Grass Hills, Chinna Kallar, and Kalikundra estate and in the forests to the south-east as far as Munnar in Kerala State. They were also reported to be fairly common in the Eravikulam plateau below Rajamalai area. The Thunacadavu range and adjacent forests of Sungam, Thillikal etc..

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

being contiguous and with few villages made a better habitat for the langurs than areas like say Punachi range which was considerably opened up by plantations, settlements and minor towns. A preliminary trial census conducted on transects along water courses and open clearings, the preferred haunts of the langurs gave a tentative estimate

Map 2. Map of South Coimbatore forest division (Tamil Nadu State) includ- ing portions of Munnar forest division (Kerala State) in the Anamalai hills,

Western Ghats.

STATUS OF THE NILG1RI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

25

of about 80 troops in the Thunacadavu and Punachi ranges (Kurup 1973)1. The preferred types of forest habitat may cover approximately 220 sq km in the two ranges.

The species is legally protected in the two ranges of the South Coimbatore Division and also in the Parambikulam area of the Kerala forests. But while this protection has helped a great deal in the re- covery of this species in recent years, the ban was not found effective in certain areas. This was so around Valparai in Punachi range and generally in' the Parambikulam area of Kerala State. It is considerably more difficult to enforce the ban due to the presence of various estates that dot the hills in the Punachi range. Adequate publicity among the estate staff and other local people, on the need to preserve this beauti- ful langur and on the fallacy of attributing medicinal value to its flesh may help.

On the whole in the Anamalais the species is picking up in most of the reserve forests. Continuation of the existing ban on its killing and strict vigilance by the forest departments of the two states con- cerned should see the species firmly re-established in the Anamalais. In this connection the creation by the Tamil Nadu Government of a wild life sanctuary in the Thunacadavu-Punachi ranges of the South Coimbatore Division is a welcome step.

Cardamom Hills

The Cardamom Hills lie immediately to the south of Anamalai Hills, (9°27'-10°4' N and 76°52'-77°17' E) with elevations ranging from 650-1300 m and with a total area of 2439.89 sq km. From the Anamalais to the north it is separated by the Devikulam plateau. On the south, the ranges extend as far as the Aryankavu Pass separating it from the southern spurs of the Western Ghats, which taper off near Kanyakumari. Except for the Peermade and Periyar areas for which road connections existed from late last century, the remaining portions, especially the southern half falling in the Quilon district of Kerala State were almost inaccessible and truly wild till recently. With the advent of development in the last decade more and more areas of what was once primeval forests were increasingly encroached upon and thrown open for settlement. The two giant hydroelectric projects, the Sabarigiri Project already completed and the Idikki Project now underway were mainly instrumental in opening up this area.

An area of 777 sq km is constituted as the Periyar Wild life Sanc- tuary, with the Periyar lake, formed in the wake of the construction of

1 Kurup, G. U. (1973): Present status of the Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis johni in the Anamalais, Western Ghats. Indian Forester 99(8) :518-521.

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Periyar Dam in Periyar river, as the focal point. The sanctuary ranges in elevation from 914 to 1828 m. The meandering lake with its innumer- able creeks follows the undulating hills that bear mixed miscellaneous forest interspersed with evergreen forest and grassy summits. Sholas or slope forests here as well as in other parts of Cardamom hills are most- ly evergreen whereas the plateau bears deciduous and mixed miscellane- ous forests.

Map 3. Map of Periyar Sanctuary, in the Cardamom Hills (Kerala State) of

Western Ghats.

Altogether 12 localities (map 3) both within and outside the sanctuary were specially surveyed by transecting likely areas. A number of boat trips were also made to different areas surrounding the lake. In a week’s survey of the lake part of the sanctuary only twelve troops were seen, besides three more heard calling. This is in addition to the two troops that are living on either side of the approach road to the boat landing at Thekkadi (the headquarters of the Sanctuary) whose presence had created an initial impression of abundance of these langurs in the sanctuary. This impression was soon proved to be errone- ous. Though the Forest Department personnel as well as other local knowledgeable people stated that the langurs are more numerous than the sighting records would suggest, yet they also agreed that they are by no means abundant or quite common in the interior. It was also told that they are present in far better numbers towards the more inaccessible eastern parts of the sanctuary i.e.; in the Malapara Pakuti.

STATUS OF THE NILGIRl LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

27

It was believed locally that the majority of the population in the sanctuary lived in areas near the border with Tamil Nadu.

Areas towards the west and south of Thekkadi and those around Peermade and Sabarimala plateau proved to be very disappointing. These are more opened up with plantations and recently laid out roads in the wake of the Sabarigiri Pamba Hydroelectric Project and also due to the tremendous annual Pilgrimage to the forest temple of Sabarimala. Moreover, considerable acreage (c 4922 acres of Eucalyptus alone by Forest Department), has been developed into plantations of rubber and eucalyptus here. Biotope is also rather different here from that of Thekkadi forests due to lesser rainfall. Most of the langurs have consequently fled from these areas with the exception of very interior areas. Not even a single troop was sighted in the forests immediately around Vandiperiyar, Anathod, Pamba and Sabarimala although local- ly it was told that they are sporadically seen in the interior forests, but in small numbers. Thus the position of the species in these parts of the sanctuary appears to be unsatisfactory.

After a survey lasting a little less than a month, a tentative estimate is that there might be only less than a hundred troops in the sanctuary.

In the areas lying north to the sanctuary towards Panniyar, Kallar, Bodimettu etc., on way to Devikulam they are said to be more numer- ous but due to lack of time these areas could not be visited. They are also said to hold their own in the forests to the south-west of the sanctu- ary in portions of Pathanamthitta taluk of Quilon district. In all these areas their favourite haunts are the shola forests.

Nilgiri Hills

The status in the Nilgiri ranges which conferred the common name on these langurs is alarming. These ranges along with the high ranges of Anamalai Hills constitute the most magnificent mountains of the Western Ghats. Many peaks rise to more than 2250 m in elevation, the highest being the Dodabetta peak near Ootacamund with a height of 2634 m, second only to Anaimudi peak in Anamalais, the highest in Peninsular India. On the whole these ranges can be divided into three zones: (1) the lower slopes of the hill ranges up to c 1500 m (2) the highland rolling hills and the high table lands above this and (3) the vast plateau country at c 1000 m on the north-west side extending to Mysore State. The lower slopes bear mainly tropical wet evergreen and tropical deciduous forest depending on the rainfall, the latter type being more extensive on the eatern face of the ranges. There is also a narrow belt of tropical semi evergreen mostly as an associated strip along with tropical evergreen. The highlands which are now mostly cleared land

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

are almost extensively developed into plantations. There are only sharply circumscribed patches of forests here which are of the wet temperate type. In the extensive lower plateau country where the fam- ed Mudumalai and Bandipur sanctuaries are situated, the forests are of a typical deciduous type presenting the appearance of a “Savanna” with a sprinkling of well distributed trees.

The Nilgiri langurs are now practically confined to the second zone the patchy forests of the highlands. This naturally bodes ill for their survival and is a cause of concern.

Most of the Nilgiri district was covered by Jeep travelling approxi- mately, 2500 km in the highlands, plateau and low lands of the dis- trict. The entire Mudumalai Sanctuary was intensively surveyed. In all this area only six troops were actually sighted four near Paikara, and the other two at Naduvattom. In fact, from all accounts, it ap- pears that the Paikara area including, Mukirti, Glenmorgan and Nilgiri Peak and areas around is the remaining stronghold of these langurs But even here they are no means common. Two or three wayside troops near about Paikara, being often and repeatedly sighted have helped to create a wrong impression of plentiful presence of these langurs in this area. Forest department personnel who are also appar- ently taken in by this belief readily admitted that they are rather un- common in the interior forests. But on the whole, the consensus of knowledgeable local opinion was that there is an appreciable population of these langurs in this area still and this is the major habitat contain- ing the lion’s share of the population in the whole district.

More intensive surveys conducted during a fortnight in the Mudu- malai Sanctuary proved beyond doubt that they are totally absent there and in the adjacent Sigur range, and in fact from the entire plateau country around 1000 m. In the Nilgiri district they are thus confined to areas above 2000 m in elevation like Paikara-Naduvattom area mentioned above forming a narrow strip on the western escarpment of the Nilgiri ranges. It is curious that these langurs which are found around 700 m in Anamalais and 1000 m at Cardamom Hills are totally absent from these elevations at Nilgiris and are confined to the still higher areas above 2000 m.

Of all the three segments of the Western Ghats dealt here, it is at once obvious that the Nilgiri area is the one most depleted in popul- ation of the Nilgiri Langur. This is no doubt due to the more “deve- loped” state of this district compared to other hill tracts considered here, with the steady encroachment on the forests by plantations, settle- ments, development projects and the general urbanisation process. The forest department should take special care to safeguard the remain- ing population of these langurs in the Paikara-Naduvattom area and its interior forests. There should not be any further expansion of the

STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI 29

Wattle and Eucalyptus plantations in these areas. A concerted publicity drive by the forest department in collaboration with the Nilgiri Game Association appears necessary.

In conclusion it appears that human persecution coupled with habitat destruction by encroachment on the forests are the main reason for the decline of the species in recent times and that wherever they are afforded protection from these two destructive factors, they are recouping themselves without any other help. So it can be safely said that given adequate protection in these respects and supported by effective publicity on the need for its conservation and exposing the myth of its medicinal value, the Nilgiri langur population in all these areas have still the vitality and resilience to recoup itself in a short time.

Note added in proof

During a recent status-cum-habitat survey of the Liontailed Macaque, Macaca silenus in the Western Ghats conducted in Oct-Nov. 1974, it was found that the Nilgiri Langur is establishing itself well in most portions of its original habitat where human persecution is not acute. Additional areas in which the species was met with or reported are: Malabar : Silent Valley and Mukkali forests in Attapadi, Nilambur forests. Anamalais : Varagaliyar and Ulandi sholas near Topslip; Marayoor and Topstation forests near Munnar. Carda- mom Hills: Kallar Valley in Achankovit range. Southern Spurs : Tenmalai forests; Papanasam Upper slopes and Singampatty ranges. Neyyar forests. In some of the sholas in the above areas troops were met with every two km. It now appears that habitat preservation and protection from poaching are all that are necessary for the preservation of the species and that it is unaffected by non-destructive human habitation.

Orchids of Nepal -9

M. L. Banerji1 2 and B. B. Thapa3 {With five text figures )

The genera that are placed under Ophryoideae are treated in this instalment. The tribes had been divided into two by Schlecter, while Schultes and Pease divide them into seven sub-tribes. The arrangement of the genera is alphabetical.

Artificial key to the genera

A Lip not spurred, concave at base Herminium (Habenarieae)

AA Lip spurred _

B Stem bearing a single leaf Hemipilia (Platanthereae)

BB Stem leafy, atleast at the base -

C Spurs two Satyrium (Satyrieae)

CC Spur one -

D Stigmatic surface flat, almost confluent Platanthera

(Platanthereae)

DD Stigmatic surface not flat, but separated as swellings or stand

out as appendages Habenaria (Habenarieae)

Habenaria Willd.

One of the largest genera of Orchids. Terrestrial plants, usually growing from tubers, rarely from a short rhizome; stem simple and erect; bearing few to many basal and cauline leaves which are thin, usually broad, and sheathing at the base. Inflorescence is terminal, usually fairly long of many small or large flowers, dorsal sepal and petals usually form a hood over the column; lateral sepals usually spreading or reflexed; lip spurred and the blade variously shaped, simple, 3 lobed or 3 partite; column short consisting mainly of anther, usually with a small auricle on either side; pollinia 2, separate, clavate or pyriform, the caudicle enclosed in long or short often prominent tubes and separated more or less widely by the rostellum. Stigmas 2, usually separated, convex or on elongated processes on either side of the base of the column, often joined to the base of the lip and auricles, while in some others flat and joined below the rostellum.

There is considerable variation in the details of the structure of the column, especially as regards the stigmas, and some authors have ad- opted a division of the genus on the basis of the structure of the stigma. Thus, J. J. Smith (1905) divides Habenaria into three genera — Platan-

1 Accepted August 31, 1972.

2 University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal.

3 Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 3i

thera, Peristylus and Habenaria proper; Schlecter (1926) recognises only two divisions — Peristylus and Habenaria. According to Holttum (1953) though such divisions may appear distinct in a limited number of species, they are said not to be sharply separable when all the known species are considered. Summerhayes (1951) split the group into dis- tinct genera. Santapau & Kapadia (1960) regard Platanthera and Peri- stylus as genera which are independent from Habenaria. In the words of Schultes & Pease (1963) “some prefer as in the case of Habenaria, to recognise large and inclusive generic concepts, while others more readily separate sections as good genera. There is here no question of right or wrong, but one of personal evaluation.” According to Haw- kes (1965), Gymnadenia is often included in Habenaria Willd., and Peristylus is in actuality closer in relationship to Herminium R. Br. Quoting Schweinfurth (1959) “for instance Leucorchis E. Mey., Gymn- adenia L. C. Rich., Coeloglossum Hart., Platanthera L. C. Rich., Blep- hari glottis Raf. and Perularia Lindl. should be regarded, we believe, as referable to the exceedingly polymorphic genus Habenaria Willd. as also Pectelis Raf., Gymnadeniopsis Rydb., and doubtless others”. We have treated Platanthera as distinct from Habenaria on grounds of the character of the stigmatic surface.

Plantanthera is a name given to those species which have a flat stigmatic surface, usually continuous but sometimes slightly divided beneath the rostellum, very much like the stigma of most orchids. The other divisions of Habenaria all have two separate stigmas, which are convex or more or less elongated often club-shaped. If the stigmas are convex and entirely united to the base of the lip and to the auricles of the column, we have the Peristylus condition; if the stigmas are long and cylindric or club-shaped, we have Habenaria proper. In Haben- aria proper, the stigmas are often quite long and prominent, they are usually below and shorter than the tubes containing the caudicles of the pollinia.

Artificial key to the species of Habenaria1 A Lateral sepals spreading, deflexed or reflexed -

B Lip 3-partite almost to the base into 3 narrow lobes -

C Sepals with filiform tips, spur equalling the ovary stenopetala

CC Sepals obtuse, spur shorter than the ovary aitchisoni

BB Lip 3-lobed and spurred -

C’ Side lobes lacerate to the middle, midlobe linear-—

D Spur rather longer than the ovary -

E Petals pubescent, broader than the dorsal sepal

arietina

EE Petals glabrous, linear, narrower than the dorsal sepal pectinata

1 Habenaria arcuata Lindl. has been recorded from Phulchowki (Nepal) by Hara (1971).

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 72(1)

DD Spur twice as long as the ovary intermedia

C’C’ Sidelobes fimbriate, hardly longer than the lateral sepals -

D’ Spur twice as long as the ovary conopsea

D’D’ Spur longer than the ovary dentata

C’C’C’ Sidelobes much longer than the lateral sepals -

D” Spike lax flowered; lip flabelliform, sidelobes entire or toothed

plantaginea

D”D” Spike dense flowered; lip very large, sidelobes hatchet-shaped,

crenulate triflora

C’C’C’C’ Sidelobes very narrow, fiiliform, horizontal, spur much shorter

than the ovary aristata

BBB Lip 3 lobed, spur almost absent or saccate; spike densely flowered,

flowers small fallax

BBBB Lip entire -

E Spur shorter than the ovary densa

EE Spur longer than the ovary, upturned latilabris

AA Lateral sepals erect or ascending, parallel to the dorsal petal, rarely at length spreading or deflexed-

B’ Lip usually 3-fid or 3-partite; flowers usually small —

F Spur longer than the sepals, incurved bicornuta

FF Spur shorter than the sepals -

G Stem more than 60 cm long, leaves petioled constricta

GG Stem less than 60 cm long; leaves hardly petioled

c goody eroides

B’B’ Lip entire -

H Flowers large c 1.2 cm across; lip shortly clawed, spur short,

conical galeandra

HH Flowers small c 0.8 cm across; lip recurved, terminal half solid

and terete, spur inflated urceolata

HHH Flowers large c 1.25 cm across; lip lanceolate, 3-nerved entire;

spur slender, curving and longer than the straight ovary

stenantha

Habenaria aitchisoni Reichb. f. in Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. 3:113, 1886; F. B. I. 6:152, 1890; King & Pantl. 311, t. 408, 1898; Kitamura, 102, 1955.

Flowers greenish, fragrant, c 1.2 cm in diam., bracts linear-lanceolate, shorter than the ovary; sepals subequal, oblong-ovate, obtuse, 3-nerved, lateral sepals spreading, dorsal erect, petals as long as the sepals, ovate- lanceolate, 1 nerved. Lip straight, as the sepals, 3-partite above the base, side segments longest, spreading and recurved, mid segment

straight, spur shorter than the curved ovary, c 6 mm long and curved forwards. Flowering time from July to August. Collected from Banku- khola at 3500 m. Authority Kitamura.

H. arietina Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 138, 1890; King & Pantl. 311, t. 407, 1898. H. pectinata Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 341, 1830. [non H. pectinata (Sm.) Don]

Flowers white or light greenish, fragrant, c 5 cm in diam., sepals gib- bously dilated on the outer margin; petals broader than the sepals, pubescent. Lip lobed only for about f of its length, sidelobes pectinate

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 33

but with fewer teeth, midlobe shorter than the sidelobes, linear, spur much longer than the ovary, 2.5-3 cm long, tip swollen. Flowering during July and August. Collected from Sheopuri, Bagdoar, Sundari- jal-Manichur area. Distributed between 1800-2100 m. This species is very similar to H. pectinata (Sm.) Don, in habit and appearance but the pectinate lip is different.

H. aristata Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 158, 1890; King & Pantl. 312, t. 409, 1898.

Flowers green, c 1.5 cm in diam., sepals subequal, linear, lateral sepals turned upwards and spreading, petals conniving with the dorsal sepal to form a hood, ovate-lanceolate, base oblique. Lip slightly longer than the sepals, hastately tripartite, sidelobes filiform and horizontally spreading, midlobe linear and shorter than the sidelobes, spur much shorter than the ovary, curved. Flowering time during July and August. Collected from Bagdoar at c 2290 m.

H. bicornuta Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 156, 1890; Hara, 437, 1966. Peristylus richardianus Wight, Icon. t. 1097, 1851.

Spike dense flowered, flowers c 10-12 mm across, dorsal sepal oblong, faintly 5 nerved, lateral sepals linear, obtuse spreading, petals as long as the lateral sepals, elliptic, 1 nerved. Lip tripartite, segments fili- form, side lobes longer than the sepals, recurved, midlobe shorter and straight, spur clavate, incurved. Collected from Phulchowki.

H. conopsea Benth. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 18: 345, 1880; Butcher, A new 111. Brit. FI. pt. 2, 740, 1961. Gymnadenia conopsea R. Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew, ed. 2, 5: 191, 1813; Kitamura, 102, 1955.

Spike rather long and dense flowered, flowers 10 mm across, fragrant, sepals reddish-lilac, lateral sepals spreading, petals linear-lanceolate, slightly united with the dorsal sepal. Lip red with 3 equal rounded lobes, spur filiform, twice as long as the ovary. Authority Kitamura.

H. constricta Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 161, 1890; King & Pantl. 325, t. 429, 1898.

Flowers greenish, white, bracts lanceolate, equal to or longer than the ovary; lateral sepals linear-lanceolate, dorsal sepal lanceolate, petals longer, ovate-oblong, gibbous on the lower side. Lip rather longer than the sepals, 3 -fid to the middle, sidelobes slender, longer than the mid- lobe, sometimes variable in size, spur broadly globular and very short, claw hardly any. Flowering during July and August. Collected from Nagarjung. Distributed at 1500 to 1600 m.

H. desisa Wall, ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 326, 1835; F. B. I. 6: 153, 1890; King & Pantl. 319, t. 420, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955; Hara 437, 1966.

3

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Fig. 1. Flower and lips of Habenaria dentata (Sw.) Schltr. Fig. 2. Habenaria

stenopetala Lindl.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 35

Flowers small, 4 mm across, erect, bracts ciliolate and longer than the ovary; sepals obtuse, thick, 3 nerved, puberulous, petals nearly as long, obliquely ovate or narrower, obtuse, fleshy, yellowish-green. Lip linear, obtuse, as long as the sepals, spur half as long as the ovary. Flowering time July and August. Collected from Chandragiri, Lamjura.

H. dentafa (Sw.) Schltr. Orch. Sino-JaP. 125, 1919; Kitamura, 103, 1955; Hara 437, 1966. Orchis dentata Swartz, in Ved. Acad. Handl. Stockh. 207, 1800. Platanthera dentata (Sw.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 296, 1835. Habenaria geniculata D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25, 1825; F. B. I. 6; 136, 1890; King & Pantl. 309, t. 405, 1898, (Fig. 1). Spike dense, flowers dull greenish, c. 2.5 cm across, lateral sepals acute, petals linear-oblong. Lip suborbicular, sidelobes cuneate or rounded, fimbriate or crenate, midlobe small, much shorter, oblong, spur subclavate, longer than the ovary. Flowering during July and August. Collected from Nagarjung. Distributed at 1525 to 1675 m. In F. B. I. the colour of the flowers is given as white, but we have not seen any specimen with white flowers.

H. fallax (Lindl.) King & Pantl. in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Cal. 8:325, t. 428, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955. Herminium fallax Lindl. in Wall. Cat. (Nomen nudum); F.B.I. 6:129, 1890. Peristylus fallax Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 298, 1835.

Leaf solitary; spike lax flowered, flowers green, bracts equalling the ovary, sepals spreading, oblong or ovate-lanceolate, 1 nerved, broader than the petals, petals erect, falcate. Lip shorter than the sepals, hastately 3 lobed, side lobes slightly diverging, midlobe longer than the sidelobes, spur saccate, tip inflated. Flowering during July and August. Collected from Sheopuri, Tarebhir, Lamjura. Distributed from 1650 to 2850 m.

H. galeandra (Reichb. f.) Benth. FI. Hongk. 363, 1861; F.B.I. 6:163, 1890. Platanthera galendra Reichb. f. in Linnaea, 25:226, 1852.

Spike 5-8 cm long, flowers pale purple, c 1 cm across, dorsal sepal ovate or narrowly lanceolate, lateral sepals falcately lanceolate, spread- ing, petals rather shorter and narrower than the sepals, obtuse. Lip broadly obovate or obcordate, sidelobes recurved, spur short, conical saccate. Flowering during June to August. Collected from Sheopuri at c 1825 m.

H. goodyeroides D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25, 1825; F.B.I. 6:161, 1890; King & Pantl. 326, t. 430, 1898; Holttum 86, 1953. Peristylus goody- eroides (Don) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 299, 1835; Sant. & Kapad. in Journ. Bom. nat. Hist. Soc. 57(1): 133, 1960.

Spike 15 to 20 cm long, flowers small, c 8-10 mm across, yellowish- green, crowded, bracts narrowly lanceolate, sepals green turning reddish

% JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

with age, dorsal sepal 6 mm long, ovate oblong, lateral sepals a bit longer, obliquely obovate-oblong, obtuse, petals gibbously ovate, spread- ing, creamy or greenish-white. Lip as long as the sepals, trilobed at the anterior part, recurved, sidelobes linear-oblong, longer than the midlobe and diverging, midlobe broad, and tapering to blunt apex, spur minute, fusiform. Flowering during July. Collected from Chainpur to Mialay at c 1825 m, locality unrecorded (Banerji).

H. intermedia D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 24, 1825; F.B.I. 6:38, 1890. Flowers few and distant, very large c 5 cm across, white or greenish- white, dorsal sepal recurved, white inside, lateral sepals falcately lance- olate, tips reflexed, narrower than the petals, acuminate, 5 nerved, petals falcate, obovate, strongly 5 nerved, glabrous. Lip longer than the sepals, 3 lobed to about 2/ 3rd of its length, green or yellowish-green, base narrow and white, sidelobes deeply fringed, midlobe entire, as long as the sidelobes, spur twice as long as the ovary, c 3 cm, very stout and swollen towards the tip. Flowering during August. Collected from Gumuraung to Sard at 2300 m. Authority Kitamura.

H. latilabris (Lindl.) Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:153, 1890; King & Pantl. 321, t. 423, 1898; Hara, 438, 1966. Platanthera latilabris Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 289, 1835. P. acuminata Lindl. loc. cit. 289, 1835.

Spike lax, flowers green, 8-14 mm across, bracts lanceolate longer than the ovary, sepals ciliolate, 3-5 nerved, dorsal sepal broadest, orbicular, lateral sepals ovate, deflexed, petals as long as the lateral sepals, broad- ly ovate, fleshy, base slightly gibbous. Lip linear, spur stout and up- turned, longer than the ovary. Flowering during August. Collected from Bagdoar.

H. pectinata (Sm.) D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 24, 1825; F.B.I. 6:137, 1890; King & Pantl. 310, t. 406, 1898. Orchis pectinata Smith, Exot. Bot. 2:77, 1805. Habenaria ensifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 321, 1835.

Spike may be as long as 20 cm, flowers large c. 4.0 cm across, white or greenish-white, crowded, dorsal sepal lanceolate, erect, lateral sepals ovate-lanceolate, petals linear-falcate, narrower than the sepals, obtuse, 3-5 nerved, glabrous. Lip as long as the sepals, 3 lobed nearly to the base, sidelobes deeply fringed, comb-like, midlobe linear, longer than the sidelobes, spur as long as the ovary, 2.5-3 cm long, geniculate, swollen at the tip. Flowering during August. Collected from Bagdoar, Lokwa (Kitamura). Distributed at about 2300 m.

H. plantaginea Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 323, 1835; F.B.I. 6:141, 1890.

Spike 5-7.5 cm long, flowers white, sepals small, subequal, acute, 3 nerved, dorsal sepal ovate-oblong, lateral sepals falcate, oblong, petals

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

37

linear-lanceolate. Lip broad, twice as long as the lateral sepals, flabel- liform, sidelobes semi-ovate entire or faintly toothed, midlobe as long, linear, spur as long as the ovary, green. Flowering during September. Collected from Banepa to Dolaghat at 916 m.

H. stenantha File. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:153, 1890; King & Pantl. 314, t. 412, 1898.

Flowers green with lip yellowish, c. 1.75-2.25 cm in diam., bracts linear- lanceolate, equalling the ovary in the lower flowers but shorter in the upper ones, sepals unequal, 3 -nerved, dorsal sepal concave, broadly ovate, erect, lateral sepals small, ovate-elliptic, reflexed, petals longer than the dorsal sepal, erect, 1 nerved. Lip longer than the sepals, lanceolate, spur longer than the ovary, curved, slightly widening to- wards the tip. Flowering time during July and August. Collected from Junbesi to Taksindhu. This species closely resembles H. latilabris but differs in the shape of the petals which are erect and in the character of the bracts.

H. stenopetaJa Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 219, 1835; F.B.I. 6: 134, 1890; King & Pantl. 308, t. 404, 1898. (Fig. 2).

Flowers greenish-yellow, sepals oblong-lanceolate, membraneous 3 nerved, tips filiform, segments of petals slender, equal or the lower shorter or even absent. Lip tripartite, lobes filiform, lateral lobes longer than the midlobe or as long as it, spur equalling the ovary. Flowering during August and September. Collected from Bagdoar, Sheopuri, Godavari, locality unknown (Herklotts). Distributed at c. 2430 m.

H. triflora D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25, 1825; F.B.I. 6:142, 1890 (Fig. 3). Sepals suberect, dorsal sepal oblong-ovate, lateral sepals oblong-lanceo- late, petals small, linear-subulate, 1 nerved. Lip very large, sidelobes semi-oblong, hatchet-shaped, crenulate, midlobe shorter, linear; spur very slender, as long as the ovary, slightly thickened at the tip. Flower- ing from July to early September. Collected from Bagdoar, Lamjura, locality unknown (Herklotts). Distributed at 1525 to 2135 m.

He urceolata C.B.C1. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 25:73, t. 30, 1889; F.B.I. 6: 165, 1890; King & Pantl. 316, t. 415, 1898.

Racemes 5-7.5 cm long, flowers white or rosy, sepals white or rosy, petals 1 nerved. Lip recurved, lanceolate, terminal half solid, acumi- nate, green, spur inflated and as long as the sepals. Flowering during August. Collected from Lamjura at 3650 m.

Hemipilia Lindl.

These are singularly attractive terrestrial orchids. The name pro- bably alludes to the sparsely hirsute lip of the type species. Accord-

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Fig. 3. Habenaria triflora D. Don. Fig. 4. Hemipilia cordifolia Lindl. Fig. 5. Flowers of Hermimium angustifolium (Lindl.) Benth. a. normal flower; b. abnormal (peloric) flower.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

39

ing to Hawkes, the flowers closely simulate, superficially atleast, some sort of Habenaria. However, they are terrestrial, tuberous herbs with a single broad radical leaf. The flowers are in lax racemes. The lip is obscurely 3 lobed, and the spur is trumpet-shaped.

Hemipilia cordifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 296, 1835; F.B.I. 6: 167, 1890; Kitamura, 103, 1955. (Fig. 4).

Plants 16-20 cm high, bearing a single leaf at the base. Leaf 7-8 by 4.5-6.5 cm broadly ovate, fleshy. Racemes few to many flowered, flowers purple c 1.0- 1.5 cm across. Bracts about half the length of the ovary, sepals equal in length, dorsal sepal oblong, obtuse, erect, lateral sepals spreading, falcate, oblong petals smaller than the sepals, erect, forming a hood, broadly ovate, entire. Lip obscurely trilobed, sidelobes rounded, midlobe broad, subcrenate, spur shorter than the ovary, curved, tip faintly 2-lobed upturned. Flowering during August and September. Collected from Tarebhir-Manichur area, Gurmurang (Kitamura). Dis- tributed at 1825 m.

Herminium R. Br.

Herminium is a genus of mostly small flowered, rather insignificant terrestrial orchids. Although rare in cultivation these allies of Haben- aria Willd. are attractive. Plants are small, erect, tuberous herbs with oblong tubers and with a solitary or few leaves. The Herminia can be distinguished from Habenarias by the characteristic lip, which is never with a spur but is provided with a saccate or gibbous base. Although it is mentioned by Hooker that the Indian Herminia attain the greatest elevation of any orchid, we have not collected any member from a high altitude.

Artificial key to the species of Herminium Lip distinctly 3 lobed -

Lip deeply 3 lobed near the apex angustifolium

Lip 3 lobed near the base and very minute jaffreyanum

Lip quite entire (sidelobes very faint) -

Sides of lip dilated, lip longer than sepals, flowers c 3-4 mm in diam.,

green congestum

Sides of lip not dilated,' lip shorter than sepals, flowers c 2-3.5 mm in diam., yellowish monophyllum

Herminium angustifolium (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:129, 1890; King & Pantl. 332, t. 434, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955; Hara, 439, 1966. Aceras angustifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 282, 1835. (Fig. 5).

Spike 5-10 cm long, flowers decurrent, small, 1.5 cm in diam., sepals oblong, obtuse, dorsal sepal and petals forming a hood, petals linear,

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

very narrow, 1 nerved, acute, membraneous. Lip as long as the sepals, trifid beyond the middle, sidelobes filiform, curved, longer than the midlobe, midlobe very short. Flowering during July and August. Col- lected from Pheda to Charikot, Manichur, Sheopuri area, Aga (Kita- mura). Distributed at 2050 to 2400 m.

H. congestum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 305, 1835; F.B.I. 6:130, 1890; King & Pantl. 355, t. 440, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955.

Spike 3-7 cm long, dense flowered, flowers minute, c 3-4 mm in diam., decurved, sepals, obtuse, dorsal sepal broadly ovate to orbicular, late- ral sepals oblong to broadly oblong, petals ovate, equalling the sepals, fleshy. Lip entire, ovate or triangular-ovate, fleshy, sides faintly dilated into lobes, base saccate. Authority Kitamura.

H. jaffreyanum King & Pantl. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 65:130, 1895; et Orch. Sikkim Himal. 333, t. 436, 1898.

Spike 3. 5-7.5 cm long, densely flowered, flowers 2-2.5 mm in diam., sepals broadly ovate-elliptic, concave, slightly spreading, petals narrow- ly oblong, obtuse, longer than the sepals. Lip 3 lobed near the base, side lobes very small and rounded, midlobe elongate with a blunt apex. Flowering during August and September. Collected from Charikot- Kalinchok area at 3200 m. This species can be distinguished from H. angustifolium on the characters of the lip and sepals. It also resembles H. monophyllum which has a single leaf, floral bracts are longer than the flowers, and the lip is entire.

H. monophyllum (D. Don) P. F. Hunt & Summerhayes in Kew Bull. 20(1) :51, 1966. Neottia monophyllum D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 27, 1825. Herminium gramineum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 305, 1835; F.B.I. 6:131, 1890.

Spike lax flowered, flowers minute c. 2-3.5 mm in diam., yellowish, suberect, dorsal sepal oblong or broadly ovate, lateral sepals ovate, obtuse, spreading, petals erect, linear, falcate, as long as the sepals, thick. Lip flat, ovate, acuminate, equalling or shorter than the sepals, base concave, saccate. Flowering during August. Collected from Chau- bas to Risingo, Buludanda to Risingo, Tarebhir. Common at 1985 m

Platanthera L. C. Rich.

This is a group of terrestrial orchids which are sometimes included in Habenaria Willd. from which it is separated on technical data. The name refers to the unusual width of the anthers.

Artificial key to the species of Platanthera

Lip pectinate, petals smaller than the sepals susannae

Lip entire and blunt, petals equalling the sepals bakeriana

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

41

Platanthera bakeriana (King & Pantl.) Kraenzl. Orch. Gen. et Spec. 1:611, 1898; Hara, 448, 1966. Habenaria bakeriana King & Pantl. in Jorun. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 65:132, 1895 et Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. 314, t. 413, 1898; Hara, 189, 1971.

Spike 10-15 cm long, laxly flowered; sepals oblong-lanceolate, dorsal sepal conniving with the petals forming a hood, lateral sepals reflexed, petals as long as the sepals, broadly ovate, oblique, subacute, base broad. Lip fleshy, oblong, blunt, slightly broader towards the base, entire, equalling the lateral sepals, spur long, slender, twice as long as the ovary, curved forwards. Collected from Phulchowki.

P. susannae (Linn.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 295, 1835; Sant, in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1): 305, 1953, Sant. & Kapad. in Journ. Bomb, nat. Hist. Soc. 57(1): 125, 1960. Orchis susannae Linn. Sp. PI. 939, 1753. Habenaria susannae (Linn.) R. Br. ex Spreng, Syst. Veg. 3:622, 1826; F.B.I. 6:137, 1890; Holttum, 81, f. 13, 1955.

Flowers few and large, c 7.5-10 cm in diam., white, fragrant, sepals spreading, lateral sepals 3.6 by 2.4 cm, oblong, subquadrately ascend- ing, obtuse, edges reflexed, dorsal sepal broad, rhomboid, spreading, petals small, linear, 1.5 cm long, acute. Lip not longer than the sepals, 3 lobed near to the base, sidelobes truncate, pectinate, midlobe 3 cm long linear or dilated downwards, spur twice as long as the ovary, 10- 12 cm long. Flowering during August and September. Collected from Markhu, at c. 1525 m.

Satyrium Sw.

Terrestrial leafy erect orchids with the root system consisting of several ovoid or globular tubers with numerous fleshy roots. When the large tubers perish after producing the flowering stem, the smaller tubers gradually increase in size, and later produce flowering stems. Because of the presumed aphrodisiacal properties possessed by the tubers the plants are much sought after and possibly it is for this reason that plants of Satyrium nepalensis are rather rare in the surroundings of Kathmandu valley.

Satyrium nepalensis D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 26, 1825; F.B.I. 6:168, 1890; King & Pantl. 338, t. 444, 1898; Kitamura, 104, 1955.

Flowering stem even up to 60 cm long, flowers crowded, c. 8-16 mm in diam., from dark pink to white, fragrant, sepals linear oblong, obtuse, spreading and recurved, petals rather narrower than the sepals. Lip broadly oblong, concave, strongly keeled on the back, spurs two, longer than the sepals and as long as the ovary. Flowering during September and October. Collected from Chandragiri, Chaubas to Risingo, Nava- pati to Risingo, Rolkhani to Tamchee, Kokwa (Kitamura), Bangu- khola (Kitamura). Distributed between 2250 to 3500 m.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

var. ciliata King & Pantl. 339, 1898. S. ciliatum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 340, 1835.

Spur hardly longer than the sepals. Collected from Tarebhir to Nagi, Borlong forest at 1980 m.

forma albifiora has been described by Tuyama in Hara’s FI. Eastern Himal., but we are of the opinion that there is a great variation of colour, thus a forma on colour is not proper. However, plants with light pink flowers which were collected from Godavari Botanic Garden, Kathmandu, were grown in the Indian Co-operation Mission, Kath- mandu garden and during the following year the flowers that appear- ed had a deeper colour. King & Pantl. (loc. cit.) have also mentioned that occasionally flowers are pure white.

(to be continued )

A new species of spider of the genus Cheiracanthium Koch (Family Clubionidae)

from India1

B. K. Tjkader {With four text -figures )

The Spiders of the family Clubionidae are little known in India, I have described previously (1962) a single species of this genus Cheir- acanthium and subsequently Patel & Patel described a second spe- cies (1973). This is the third species to be described from India. While examining the spider collection received from Shri J. C. Daniel, Cura- tor, Bombay Natural History Society, I came across a new species of spider, of the genus Cheiracanthium, which is described here.

Cheiracanthium danieli sp. nov.2

General : Cephalothorax and abdomen light brownish-green, legs pale-green. Total length 6.30 mm. Carapace 3.00 mm long, 2.20 mm wide; abdomen 3.40 mm long, 1.80 mm wide.

Cephalothorax'. Longer than wide, wider in front, clothed with fine hairs, moderately convex, cephalic region slightly higher than posterior region. Eyes pearly white, anterior row straight and posterior row pro- curved; lateral eyes nearly contiguous; medians oval and white, slightly larger than laterals. Chelicerae strong, nearly vertical and dark brown in colour, inner margin provided with two equal teeth but other margin with one tooth large and another very small. Maxillae and labium (Fig. 2) provided with deep brown colour. Sternum heart-shaped pointed behind, clothed with hairs. Legs long, stout, clothed with hairs. Femora I and II provided with a dorsal long spine. Male palp as in text fig. 4.

Abdomen ; Rather long, narrowed posteriorly, clothed with pubes- cence and some long hairs. Ventral side uniform pale colour. Epigyne as in text fig. 3.

1 Accepted February 20, 1974.

2 It is with much pleasure that I have named this species after Shri J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, who collected this specimen for my study.

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Cheirdcanthium danieli sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted. Fig. 2. Maxillae and labium. Fig. 3 Epigyne. Fig. 4. Male palp.

45

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS CIIEIR ACANTHIU M

Holotype : One female, allotype, one male in spirit.

Type locality : Borivli National Park, Bombay, India Coll J. C. Daniel. 25.i.l974 and allotype from Western Regional Station, Zoolo- gical Survey of India, Shivajinagar, Poona - 5 Coll. B. K. Tikader, 3 1-i- 1974.

This species resembles Cheiracanthium saraswatii Tikader, but it is separated as follows: (i) Chelicerae, maxillae and labium conspicu- ously dark brown in colour, but in C. saraswatii chelicerae, maxillae and labium not conspicuously dark brown colour, (ii) Epigyne and male palp structurally different.

References

Patel, B. H. & Patel, H. K. (1973) : On some new species of

spiders of family Clubionidae (Ara- neae: Arachnida) with record of

genus Castineira Keyserling from Gujarat, India: Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 78(1) : 1-9.

Tikader, B. K. (1972) : Studies on some Indian Spiders (Araneae: Ara- chnida) : J. Linn. Soc. London Zool. 44: 568.

Some observations on birds at high altitude lake sides in Gosainkund, central Nepal 1 2

Hiroyuki Masatomi

Hokkaido College, Senshu University, Bibai, Hokkaido, Japan

( With a map )

Simple bird censuses by the line transect method were carried out by the side of high altitude lakes, at about 4,300 m altitude in Gosainkund, central Nepal on June 4-5, 1968. In total, ten species and a few unidentified ones were noted in the cirque. Another five species were observed outside of the census areas. The status of each species at high elevations in Gosainkund is briefly des- cribed together with previous records from central Nepal. The average bird density around the lakes was 13.5 per hour or 4.5 per ha. An unusually high density of 54.0 per hour or 18.1 per ha. was recorded on 4 June. This high concentration probably was due to a temporary fall of snow. The density of birds at the lake sides seemed to be higher than that of other areas, excluding tarns or streams, at the same altitude in Gosainkund.

Since the middle of the last century reports on the distribution of birds in Nepal have been published by many authors such as Gray & Gray (1846), Scully (1879), Smythies (1948, 1950), Proud (1949, 1952, 1955), Ripley (1950), Rand & Fleming (1957), Fleming & Traylor (1961, 1964), Fleming (1968), etc. Recently Biswas (1960-1966) has compiled serial catalogues of birds known from Nepal based upon a bibliographical survey and his original observations. But there are few ecological observations except the important work by Diesselhorst (1968) and no record on the actual abundance of Nepalese birds has yet been given at all.

From March to July 1968, I had an opportunity to observe many birds from the tarai up to the alpine zone in central Nepal and on the Kali Gandak watershed in west-central Nepal3 as a member of the Hokkaido University Scientific Expedition to Nepal Himalaya 1968. While trekking in the country, I tried to census birds in different

1 Scientific results of Hokkaido University Expeditions to the Himalayas, Zoology No. 5.

2 Accepted February 28, 1973.

3 Divisions of Nepal used here conform to the usage by Biswas (1960).

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

47

habitats. The present paper deals with results obtained at the highest altitude the party reached.

Habitat and Methods

The Gosainkund Lekh lies at about 40 km northwards of Kath- mandu, the capital of Nepal. Beneath its crest are seven or more mon- tane tarns at the head of the Trisuli Khola. Trekking along the trail running upwards to the pass from the Tadi Khola, I came across only six small lakes, the upper three of which were completely frozen. Beside a clear lake at an elevation of about 4,300 m, some huts and an altar with standing tall flags ( tarcho ) were situated on a slope of debris. This was the famous sacred lake. Three fourth of its circumference was encircled by steep rocky inclines and water fell from a northwestern opening down to a lower lake through a cascade of several metres.

These lakes are henceforth abbreviated as GLA and GLB respec- tively. Accurate measurements of size and shape of both lakes were not secured, but the circumference was estimated to be about 850 m in GLA and 1,200 m in GLB (Map).

The slopes around the lakes were barren rock slides extending up- wards from about 4,000 m (a few shrubs of rhododendrons were still occasionally seen). The western sides of both lakes were covered with dwarf rhododendron scrub; R. anthopogon with pale yellow- white flowers and R. setosum with pink-rose ones past full bloom. Besides these, the surroundings were covered with meagre patches of vegetation composed of Primula and Potentilla both in bloom, mosses, lichens, and withered sedges. Nematocera, Carabus, Lacon, Eubasilissa nepa- lensis and small dung beetles were found under or on the debris of the water’s edge and many active long-legged flies, Hydrophorus, on the snow. Some earthworms and centipedes were also found under stones on the scree. Although the quantity of these insects was not accurately measured at each lake side, food for birds was apparently more abund- ant at GLA than GLB.

Birds were counted twice at the side of GLA and once at GLB by line transect method. At first all birds encountered along the GLA side, covering about 300 x 50 m, were recorded from 8.00 to 8.30 on June 4. It was cloudy but sometimes fine and the light snow that fell overnight was 4-6 cm deep. Air temperature was 2°C at 8.00. The next day was cloudy and the snow in the area had almost thawed. Air temperature was 0.5°C at 6.00 and the second count was carried out from 6.30 to 7.30, covering 600 x 50 m along the water side.

All birds were counted near the GLB, covering 1,200 x 50 m, from 15.45 to 18.00 on June 4. On the way the census had to be stopped

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

1 0 km

Nepal Valley <—

Kathmandu

Map. Sketch map of Gosainkund and sacred lakes.

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

49

for about three quarters of an hour due to heavy rain-fall and dense fog. Air temperature was 6.5°C at 15.15.

Results

Birds encountered during each census are arranged in Table 1. Absolute number counted, dominance, average density per unit time and area in each species are shown in Table 2, omitting the result of the first census which was somewhat peculiar as described in the con- clusion.

Most of the birds observed were moving about or searching for food among the rocks at the water’s edge, excepting the following indi- viduals: Two Prunella preening on rocks away from the water, and two flying towards the scrub of dwarf rhododendrons; four Anthus hodgsoni flying over the lakes, two of them holding worms or something similar between their bills, and one calling from a rock and another doing so on the wing; A. cervinus giving the alarm call from a stone wall; a pair of Leucoslicte hopping on the small grass field; one Chaimarrornis often driving away an Anthus from the debris, and two passing over the lake at about 2 m high; two male Monticola chasing each other on the rock slide; a Zoothera taking insects or worms on the ground under the shade of a large rock; two Tadorna coming from southwest and flying away towards the eastern crest of the ridge after circular flights at about 20 m height over my head; a female Ay thy a floating at the margin of GLB (not seen anywhere next morning); all birds of uncertain identification were flying rapidly between the rocks or high overhead.

The status of each species at high altitude in central Nepal is briefly outlined below. These comments are based upon both original obser- vations and previous records.

Prunella coUaris nipalensis (Blyth): Eastern Alpine Hedge Sparrow.

Three male specimens collected after the census were all nipalensis. This subspecies seems to be reported only in central Nepal after Hodg- son’s collection; that is Smythies’ observation on the Gandak-Kosi watershed at 4,570 m in September. But it was the most dominant and common bird along streams and tarns at 4,160-4,500 m in the area observed along the pilgrim trail.

On June 5, I recorded four birds of this species beneath the pass hopping on rocks near the frozen lake at 4,500 m, another two birds were each on different streams at 4,250-4,220 m and finally one was searching for food on the ground of the cirque at 4,160 m at the head of the Tadi Khola. Three specimens obtained there had already enlarg- ed testes, 11-14 x 16-20 mm, indicating that they were just in season.

4

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Table 1

Number of individuals, dominance and density of all species observed in

EACH CENSUS.

Census round GLA Census round GLB First Second
Species	N	Density per D hour ha	N	Density per D hour ha	N	Density per D hour ha
P. collaris	12	44	24.0	8.0	5	28	5.0	1.7	6	25	2.8
A. roseatus	6	22	12.0	4.0	3	17	3.0	1.0	3	13	1.4	0.5
A. hodgsoni	4	15	8.0	2.7	2	11	2.0	0.7	2	8	0.9	0.3
A. cervinus	2	7	4.0	1.3					2	8	0.9	0.3
C. leucocephalus	1	4	2.0	0.7	2	11	2.0	0.7	4	17	1.9	0.7
L. nemoricola					2	11	2.0	0.7	2	8	0.9	0.3
M. rufiventris									2	8	0.9	0.3
Z. mollissima	1	4	2.0	0.7
T. ferruginea					2	11	2.0	0.7
A. fuligula									1	4	0.5	0.2
Uncertain	1	4	2.0	0.7	2	11	2.0	0.7	2	8	0.9	0.3
Total	27	100	54.0	18.1	18	100	18.0	6.2	24	100	11.1	3.9
N: Number of individuals.
D : Dominance	(%)•

Table 2 Total number of individuals, average dominance and density EXCEPT THE FIRST ONE AT GLA.	OF CENSUSES
Species	No. of	Dominance	Density per
	individuals	(%)	hour	ha
P. collaris	11	26.2	3.4	1.2
A. roseatus	6	14.3	1.9	0.7
A. hodgsoni	4	9.5	1.3	0.4
A. cervinus	2	4.8	0.7	0.2
C. leucocephalus	6	14.3	1.9	0.7
L. nemoricola	4	9.5	1.3	0.4
M. rufiventris	2	4.8	0.7	0.2
T. ferruginea	2	4.8	0.7	0.2
T. fuligula	1	2.4	0.3	0.1
Uncertain	4	9.5	1.3	0.4

Total

42

100

13.5

4.5

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

51

The individuals caught by Diesselhorst (1968) in eastern Nepal from late June to mid August also had well developed gonads and he sug- gested that their breeding would begin in June.

Anthus roseatus Blyth: Hodgson’s Pipit.

Smythies (1948) did not come across this bird at Gosainkund in autumn, though Scully (1879), Proud (1955), and Rand & Fleming (1957) found it not uncommon in the Nepal Valley in winter and Polunin (1955) recorded it as abundant at about 3,000 m up in central Nepal in summer. It seems to be common at about 4,300-4,700 m in west-central Nepal (Lowndes 1955) and breeds in the alpine zone in Nepal (Biswas 1960; Diesselhorst 1968).

I came across these birds at 4,160-4,300 m in Gosainkund. A speci- men caught around the lake had developed testes 8x5 mm, and many bits of insects, mostly broken Nematocera, were found in its stomach.

Anthus hodgsoni Richmond; Indian Tree Pipit.

It is not prudent to identify this as A. h. yunnanensis or A. h. hodg- soni, but all previous records on the former indicate that it occurs be- low 3,000 m while hodgsoni seems mainly to breed at the higher alti- tude of 3,000-4,000 m in Nepal (Diesselhorst 1968).

Anthus cervinus Pallas: Red throated Pipit.

This species seems to be scarce in Nepal; after Hodgson’s collection there are neither sight records nor collected examples except a single one obtained by Rand & Fleming (1957). The author, however, met with several individuals of this species at 4,220-4,350 m and they could be apparently distinguished from other pipits found in the same area by means of their bright cinnamon-red supercilium, throat and breast, especially in comparison with the vinous-pink roseatus .

Chaunarromis ieucoeephalus (Vigors): Whitecapped Redstart.

Three or four birds were sometimes flying about our camping place. This was a bird characteristic of streams or tarns as already noted by Smythies (1948) at the eastern side of Gosainkund. These birds, utter- ing short notes, were observed up to 4,480 m on June 5 and were also common in the cirque beyond the pass to the Tadi Khola.

Zoothera mollissima (Blyth) or dixoni (Seebohm): Plainbacked

or Longtailed Mountain Thrush.

This thrush was very rare in the alpine zone. This sight record was insufficient to positively identify the bird as mollissima or dixoni, but it may furnish information. Diesselhorst (1968) pointed out the pos- sibility of their ecological segregation with dixoni in forest and mollis- sima in the alpine or over the forest zone. In eastern Nepal he occa- sionally found “Zoothera Drosseln” at 4,300-4,400 m in habitats such as rock slide areas and poor vegetation without trees similar to habitats in my survey.

52 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

This species has been reported from central Nepal only at 1,500- 3,600 m by Smythies (1948, 1950), Proud (1955), and Rand & Flem- ing (1957). The present case, however, may be the first sight record at such a high altitude in central Nepal. Abe, a member of the party, also recognized a similar Zoothera near the lake in the afternoon.

Leucosticte nemorieola (Hodgson): Hodgson’s Mountain Finch.

Moved in pairs. Neither Smythies (1948) nor Proud (1952) found this species at the Gandak-Kosi watershed, but Polunin (1955) obtain- ed it in the Langtan Khola, central Nepal. Diesselhorst (1968) enumer- ated it as a typical alpine bird in Nepal and Martens (1971) found it at about 3,000 m in non-breeding season.

Tadoma ferruginea (Pallas): Ruddy Sheld-duck or Brahminy Duck.

Scully (1879), Ripley (1950), and Rand & Fleming (1957) record- ed it as common in the tarai and occasional in the Nepal Valley. I saw no other individuals in the country. This case might be a rare sight record at this high altitude in central Nepal. Biswas (1960) re- ported that he found this species preparing to breed at about 5,000- 5,300 m, but Diesselhorst (1968) conservatively admitted its probable propagation, considering the impossibility of its usual breeding activity at those alpine lakes.

Monticola rafiventris (Jardine & Selby): Chestnutbellied Rock Thrush.

The individuals observed seemed to be rufiventris, because no white patches on wings characteristic of cinclorhynchus were seen. A pair was seen near the frozen tarns at 4,460 m and the male was singing loudly on a rock. Moreover, a pair calling and moving around on rock debris at 4,250 m was found beyond the pass on the way to Thare Pati. Hitherto the species has been recorded only below 3,350 m in autumn (Smythies 1948) and 2,440 m even in spring (Proud 1952) in central Nepal.

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus): Tufted Duck.

Ripley (1950) found it in ponds and on the rivers around the Nepal Valley and it seems to be fairly common in the lowlands during winter (Rand & Fleming 1957). Masatomi (1971) found four males and six females floating on a pond near Trisuli at about 700 m on May 28. The occurrence of the species may be very uncommon at such high altitude in central Nepal, but Biswas (1960) observed it on montane lakes at about 5,000-5,300 m in eastern Nepal in May.

Besides the birds mentioned above, the following species were occasionally found around the sacred lakes during 3-5 June.

Myiophoneus caeruleus (Scopoli): Whistling Thrush.

Noted resting for a moment on rocks near the lake side, then it flew north towards the ridge. Smythies (1948) did not mention it in his list, but Proud (1955) and Polunin (1955) found it up to only 3,500 m

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

53

in central Nepal. On the way to Thare Pati at 3,800 m, I saw another.

Grandala coelicolor Hodgson: Hodgson’s Grandala.

One male on June 5. After stopping a while on rocks it flew away northwards. A flock of this typical alpine species feeding on scree was found in a cirque and three specimens were collected at the head of the Tadi Khola at 4,160 m. A female obtained had a fully developed egg with a soft shell in her uterus. Smythies (1948) saw it at about 4,500 m in the same area and Diesselhorst (1968) caught specimens at 4,100-5,200 m in eastern Nepal.

Caorpodacus puniceus puniceus (Blyth): Nepal Redbreasted Rose- finch.

A female was obtained near the Kharka on June 3. On the Gosain- kund Lekh only Smythies (1948) observed a male at about 3,650 m in September.

Partridge and kite.

The call notes of snow partridges were heard several times from the upper margin of the northern cliff rising at a distance from the lake, though I failed to find them in the fog. On June 4 a bird, probably a kite passed over the ridge far from me, gliding in a southerly direction.

Conclusion

The avifauna of the area observed in early June 1968 were charac- terized by the most dominant alpine hedge sparrow, P. collaris, previously recorded at 4,570 m on the Gosainkund Lekh (Smythies 1948). The next abundant birds were subalpine or alpine pipits, Anthus group, and the redstart, C. leucocephalus, occuring up to 5,335 m in summer (Biswas 1961). The others were typical alpine birds, that is, the grandala and the mountain finch. Though Diesselhorst (1968) listed six species as common dwellers in a restricted vertical range in “Feu- chte alpine Gebusche und Matten” 4,200-5,200 m, only three of them, P. collaris, A. roseatus, and L. nemoricola were found common at the lake sides in the present case.

Appearance of ducks at such high elevations might be rare but partly relates to the existence of tarns in the area. They must stay here only temporarily, for they did not appear to be breeding here.

It was remarkable that the results of first census made on June 4 showed a concentration of birds more than three or four times denser than in other cases. Particularly Prunella and Anthus were abundant at GLA; about five times as many as on the next day. Although these unusual results might depend partly on the difference of census time, they must have been caused mainly by the snow fall on June 4 which temporarily covered all fields and made food hard to get for the birds.

54 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

In fact, after much of the snow had thawed by afternoon, I found birds on the rocky slopes studded with grassy patches a little distance from the lake. Few birds had been counted here during the first census.

The density at GLA seemed to be slightly higher than that at GLB. Analysis of both habitats were not sufficient to specify the factors causing such different congregations, but as described above many more insects were found at GLA, especially at the northern side, than at GLB. The comparison of individual numbers of birds at the different sites seems to be of less significance statistically, because the number of censuses was small and the conditions were fairly different.

The relative abundance of individual numbers in this census at this high altitude might be caused by birds wandering up to their breeding grounds. C. leucocephalus, for example, was not seen above 1,500 m in late March on the Gandak Kosi watershed by Proud (1952), but I recognized it as common up to about 4,500 m as Smythies (1948) found it in September. Naturally the population at the area may decrease in winter owing to freezing and snowfall covering all fields.

Although an actual count at other places at similar altitude was not undertaken, I felt that rocky slopes, excluding tarns or streams, had fewer birds than the area censused. Therefore, the number of birds re- corded in the present case might indicate not the average (or the low- est) but more or less high (or the highest by Elton, 1933) density at this altitude in Gosainkund.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my thanks to Professor Mayumi Yamada, the leader of the expedition, and other members of the party for their kind interest and encouragement in the present study. I am most grate- ful to Drs. Shoichi F. Sakagami, Hokkaido University, and Robert L. Fleming, Jr., Kathmandu, for their many suggestions and critical read- ing of the manuscript. Drs. Biswamoy Biswas, Indian Museum, Shsichiro Satsuki, and Mr. Mahide Yoshida kindly helped to obtain literature on the birds of Nepal.

References

Biswas, B. (1960-1966): The birds 638-654, 63(2) : 365-377. of Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Diesselhorst, G. (1968): Beitrae 57(2): 278-308, 57(3) :516-546, 55(1) : zur Okologie der Vogel zentral-und

100-134, 55(2) :441-474, 55(3) :653- ost-Nepals. Khumbu Himal. 2:1-417.

677, 59(1): 200-227, 59(3) : 807-821, Elton, C. (1933): The ecology of

69(1) : 173-200, 60(2) : 388-399, 69(3): animals. New York.

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

55

Fleming, R. L., jr. (1968) : Winter observations on the ecology and dis- tribution of birds on the Kosi-Gandak watershed ridge, central Nepal. Pavo, 6.

Fleming, R. L. & Traylor, A. M. (1961): Notes on Nepal birds. Fiel- diana, Zool, 55(8) :441-487.

&

(1964) : Further notes on Nepal birds, ibid., 55(9) : 489-558.

♦Gray, J. E. & Gray, G. R. (1846) : Catalogue of the specimens and draw- ings of mammalia and bird of Nepal and Thibet, presented by B. H. Hodg- son, Esq., to the British Museum, London.

Lowndes, D. G. (1955) : Some

birds from north-western Nepal. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(1): 28- 37.

Martens, J. (1971): Zur Kenntnis des Vogelzuges im nepalischen Him- alaya. Vogelwarte 26(1) : 113-128.

Masatomi, H. (1971) : Aves. in

“Animals and plants of Nepal Hima- laya” (in Japanese). 26-41. Sapporo.

Polunin, O. (1955): Some birds collected in Langtang Khola, Rasua Garhi District, central Nepal. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(4) : 886-896.

Proud, D. (1949) : Some notes on the birds of the Nepal Valley, ibid. 45:696-719.

t (1952): Some birds

seen on the Gandak-Kosi watershed in March, 1951. ibid. 50: 355-366.

(1955): More notes on

the birds of the Nepal Valley, ibid. 55 :(1): 57-78.

Rand, A. L. & Fleming, R. L. (1957) : Birds from Nepal. Fieldiana, Zool 47(1): 1-218.

Ripley, S. D. (1950) : Birds from Nepal, 1947-1949. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(3): 355-417.

Scully, J. (1879): A contribution

to the ornithology of Nepal. Stray Feathers, 8 : 204- 368.

Smythies, B. E. (1948): Some

birds of the Gandak-Kosi watershed, including the pilgrim trail to the sacred lake of Gosainkund. /. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 47(3) : 432-5 18.

(1950): More

notes on the birds of the Nepal

Valley, ibid. 49(3) :513-518.

Not referred to in original.

A new species of Rotala from Palghat, Kerala1

R. Vasudevan Nair Govt. Victoria College , Palghat (With eighteen text-figures)

The plant described in this paper is a new species of Rotala, collect- ed first in August, 1964, from Malampuzha, Palghat, Kerala State, and subsequently from other places. Details of collection are shown below.

Date	Place	Habitat	Association
August 1964	Malampuzha, Palghat Dt.	Very shallow water holes on granite rock.	As consociations or along with Dopatrium, Ily- santhes.
September 1965	N. Parur, Ernakulam Dt.	Water-logged sandy loam soil.	Small consoci- ation.
September 1967	Badagara, Calicut Dt.	Paddy fields.	Along with Rotala leptopetala, R. densiflora, Limnophila.
July 1971	Malampuzha, Palghat Dt.	Very shallow water holes on rock.	Consociation or along with Dopatrium, llysanthes.

The plants formed dense, deep green carpets on the substratum. The gregarious growth and short, slender, simple erect branches with crim- son spots of flowers and fruits made the plants conspicuous and dif- ferent in appearance from the larger species, Rotala leptopetala and R. densi flora, which were also common in the locality. The latter two species are not spreading forms and their erect shoots freely branch. Because of striking differences from all other species of Rotala record- ed from this state, dry specimens and descriptions were sent to Royal

1 Accepted March 2, 1972.

A NEW SPECIES OF ROTALA

57

Botanic Gardens, Kew, for identification (H. 868/68) where it was identified as a form of Rotala cf. R . leptopetala. Study of fresh speci- mens with reference to original diagnosis given by Koehne for the sub-species and varieties of R . leptopetala, proved that this plant is a distinct type. Due to the peculiar spreading growth and short, simple erect branches, the plant is easily distinguished from the other species of Rotala, even in the vegetative stage. Trimerous flower, staminodes, and reduced number of seeds are three characteristics of the plant, separating it from the other species. Hundreds of fresh flowers of R. leptopetala collected from different localities were examined. Stamino- des or anything suggestive of staminodes were not found in any. But staminodes are invariably present in this plant. The characters of this plant are constant. Specimens from the three localities which are more than 150 km apart and with different environmental conditions, are all alike. Even when growing along with R. leptopetala, at the same spot, it is strikingly different. All evidence indicates that it is a separate and unidentified species of Rotala. Based on its spreading growth, small size, simple, short, erect branches, crimson trimerous flower, staminodes, and limited number of seeds, it is described as a new species of Rotala.

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Herba annua amphibia profuse ramosa caespitosa perviridis, floribus et fructibus coccineis minutis sed conspicuis instructa. Rami erecti simpli- ces tenuesque. Folia angustata minus quam 1.5 cm longa, 2-4 mm lata. Flores solitarii axillares coccinei trimeri, minus quam 1.5 mm diametro. Dentes accessorii florum breves deflexi. Petala minuta coccinea. Stami- nodia 3. Semina 10-15 coccinea.

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Amphibious, annual herbs growing as dense, deep green carpet, spot- ted with crimson flowers and fruits. Stem procumbent, profusely branch- ed, spreading, rooting at nodes; erect branches simple, 5-20 cm long; inter-nodes slender, quadrangular, upper ones short. Leaves simple, exsti- pulate, opposite decussate, subsessile, angustate, 2-4 mm broad, up to 1.5 cm long, deep green veins indistinct, apex microscopically truncate (Fig. 2). Flowers solitary, axillary (Fig. 1), sessile, crimson, less than 1.5 mm in dia., trimerous, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, perigynous. Bracteoles 2, lateral, subulate, shorter than calyx (Fig. 3). Hypan- thium campanulate, less than 1 mm long, with 6 faint vertical veins. Sepals 3, free, triangular, acute, crimson (Fig. 3, 4). Accessory teeth 3, very short, acute (Figs. 3, 4). Petals 3, free, very small, linear-oblong, acute, crimson (Fig. 11). Stamens 3, antisepalous; filaments filiform.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Habit; Fig. 2. Twig; Fig. 3. T. S. of stem; Fig. 4. Leaf and leaf-tip; Fig. 5. Bud; Figs. 6, 7, 8. Open flowers.

A NEW SPECIES OF ROTALA

59

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Fig. 9. Hypanthium opened; Fig. 10. V. S. of flower; Fig. 11. Petal; Fig. 12. Anther in two views; Fig. 13. Pistil; Fig. 14. T. S. of ovary; Fig. 15. Pollen; Fig. 16. Fruits; Fig. 17. Seed in two views; Fig. 18. Embryo in two views.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

white or purplish anthers 2-celled, 4-lobed, introrse, cells semicircular, purplish; pollen white, sub-spherical, smooth, thin- walled (Figs. 9, 12, 15). Staminodes 3, alternating with stamens, shorter than ovary, linear, apex purplish, entire, emarginate or slightly bifid (Fig. 9). Ovary sub- spherical, incompletely 3-celled, with vestigial septa only at base; placenta axile, fleshy, discontinuous at apex; ovules 3-6 per cell; style short, simple; stigma discoid, papillate (Figs. 10, 13, 14). Fruits less than 1.5 mm, sub-spherical, crimson, half-exserted (Fig. 16), splitting vertically into 3 valves; pericarp microscopically horizontally striate. Seeds 10-15, crimson, obovoid, inner surface slightly excavated (Fig. 17) smooth, shining, exalbuminous.

Diagnosis

Profusely branching, tufted, deep green plants with minute but con- spicuous crimson spots of flowers and fruits. Erect branches simple, slender, short. Leaves less than 1.5 cm long, 2-4 mm broad, angustate. Flowers solitary, axillary, crimson, less 1.5 mm, trimerous. Accessory teeth very short. Petals small, crimson. Staminodes 3. Seeds 10-15, crimson.

This species was first identified at Kew as a form coming near R. leptopetala and at Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, as resembl- ing the variety littorea, but in the invariable presence of staminodes and the limited number of seeds, it is more close to R. mexicana than to the former. However, R. mexicana is a miniature, prostrate plant of dull green colour and pink, tetramerous flowers. In appearance it is striking- ly different from Rot ala malampuzhensis.

Ack n owledge m e n ts

For the Latin rendering of the diagnosis I am deeply indebted to Dr. Adelaide L. Stork of Stockholm University. I am grateful to Prof. K. Kesavan Nair, Victoria College, Palghat, for taking the photo- graphs of the plant. This paper would not have come out but for the encouragement given by Dr. B.K. Nair. Professor of Botany, University of Calicut. I am also indebted to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for providing me with the original diagnosis for Rotala and helping me in identifying the plant.

Paratype specimens are deposited at the herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore, along with type.

Observations on metamorphosing behaviour of Cy bis ter larvae for development of control measures during pupal stage1

G. A. Shirgur

Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station , Bombay 400002 {With a text figure)

Introduction

Several species of aquatic beetles, of the genus, Cy bister (Family Dytiscidae) are of common occurrence in fish nurseries. Both larvae and adults are active predators, on spawn and of fishes.

Mature larvae, at the end of last instar, pupate in moist earth at the waters’ edge of ponds. The easy accessability of Cy bister beetles at the pupal stage in the vicinity of fish nurseries, makes control measures possible and studies were made on metamorphosing behaviour of the larvae, belonging to five species, namely Cybister cognatus Sharp, C. limbatus (Fabricius), C. sugillatus Erichson, C. posticus Aube and C. tripunctatus asiaticus Sharp. Among these, C. tripunctatus is the com- monest and occurs in large numbers.

The term “metamorphosis” is used in a restricted sense in the text, only to denote the changes from last larval instar to the finally formed imago.

Material and Methods

(a) Material

Larvae and Cybister beetles were collected from fish nurseries and ponds mainly around Bombay. A stock of live material was maintained at the laboratory and were fed on minnows.

Accepted September 2, 1971.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

(b) Methods

(i) Initially, experiments were conducted to find out the total period of pupation in the soil, once the mature larva encloses itself in the pupal cell. For this purpose, a single freshly collected larvae of a species was kept in a glass aquarium tank, measuring 30 x 23 x 23 cm. In the tank, conditions were made to conform as far as possible to natural conditions. A block of laterite soil, of approximately 22 x 15 x 15 cm size, was placed contiguously to the sidewall over a stone slab of 5 cm thickness kept on the bottom. Water level in the remaining portion of the tank was maintained at this height in order to prevent the desicca- tion of the clod.

Time and date of entry of the larva into the earth as well as emer- gence, as an adult, were recorded in order to determine the total period of pupation. The temperature of the water at the time of emergence of the adult was also simultaneously recorded.

Since there were no pupation out of freshly brought last instar Cyb- ister larvae in the earth-blocks, except once, the experiments were re- peated by introducing into the tank such larvae, which were fed inten- sively with Gambusia and other young fishes. These larvae became progressively dull, and stopped feeding and then readily entered the earthen-blocks. Five observations were made for each species of Cybister which were identified later from the imagos that emerged, namely C. tripunctatus, C. cognatus, C. limbatus, C. sugillatus and C. posticus.

(ii) Since the total periods of pupation varied further laboratory experiments were conducted to find out whether the total period of metamorphosis and therefore the duration of moulting into pupa and imago were constant for each species, from the date of initiation of metamorphosis by interning larvae of different species into artificial pupal cells in the earth-blocks, thereby inducing them to undergo post- larval development.

For this purpose, 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks, each . made of laterite soil of dry weight of approximately 1500 g and 500 ml of freshwater, were prepared and kept in enamel trays. Water was poured in the tray at the base of these blocks periodically, to prevent desiccation. In each of these blocks, two crude cells of approximately 3 x 2 cm size, were prepared on either end 10 cm apart.

At a time, two larvae of a particular species which had stopped feeding, were introduced in these cells, closing them thereafter from above, with clay- tablets. Next day, the pupal cells were examined to check whether metamorphosis had been initiated by the larvae, which was indicated by the presence of a secondary earthen cap made by the metamorphosing larva under clay-tablets. This was taken as first day of metamorphosis. Subsequently, observations were made, every 24 hours, by opening the cells in one of these blocks, to examine the

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

63

progress of metamorphosis. Thus, the duration of moulting into pupa and imago were determined with reference to larvae of different species.

(iii) Larvae of C. tripunctatus being the most predominant in fish nurseries, laboratory experiments were conducted on these larvae, with a view to eradicating different metamorphosing stages infesting the soil above the water level, by using carbon disulphide and formalde- hyde as fumigants. In all these experiments, mature larvae, showing no further response for feeding, were introduced in the artificial pupal cells, in the earthen-blocks as described above. The blocks were cover- ed with plastic sheets after injecting the fumigants.

Preliminary experiments were conducted to find out the relation- ship of different quantities of a fumigant injected, and corresponding period of mortality for different metamorphosing stages, contained in the blocks.

In the experiments, four quantities of one of the fumigants, 2, 4, 6 and 8 ml were injected in four different blocks (covered thereafter with plastic sheets), each containing the metamorphosing stages of one of the five different age groups namely 3, 6, 9 and 18 day-old, at a time. At the end of 24 and 48 hours, the cells in the blocks were open- ed to examine the effects of increasing doses of the fumigant. These experiments showed that even 2 ml of carbon disulphide was lethal to the insects at the end of 48 hours but formaldehyde had no effect. Thus, in subsequent experiments, varying quantities of carbon disul- phide had to be tried for determination of quantities of this fumigant, lethal at the end of 48 hours, for each of the advanced metamorphosing stages (1-18 days stages, and unemerged adults).

However, it was important to find out whether the progress in meta- morphosis of a particular stage was arrested during the 48 hours period of fumigation. For this purpose, the blocks (covered with plastic sheets after injection) containing 8 and 17 day-old stages were injected with the quantities of carbon disulphide, lethal at the end of 48 hours. At the end of 24 hours and 48 hours, the cells were opened and 8th and 17th day stages were examined to see whether these had moulted into pupa and adults, respectively, (i.e. 9th and 18th day stages).

Similarly, experiments conducted to find out whether the arresting effect can also be brought about by the disturbance caused by the open- ing and closing of the cells containing 8th and 17th day stages, showed that moulting did not take place at the end of even 48 hours. Thus, these experiments have shown that in both cases, arresting of meta- morphosis took place.

With these preliminary but important observations, experiments were continued by injecting varying quantities of carbon disulphide in the centre of the 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks, each with two artificial cells, 10 cm apart, each containing one metamorphosing stage at a

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

time (i.e. one of the 1-18 day old stages + unemerged adults), with a view to determining the lethal quantities at the end of 48 hours for dif- ferent stages. Before injecting the fumigant, both cells were opened to ascertain whether the metamorphosing stages in the blocks were in normal state of development. This also served as a coordinate arrest- ing factor of metamorphosis during the period of 48 hours of fumiga- tion.

(iv) Experiments were also conducted with a view to determining the comparative toxicity of two more fumigants, namely ethylene dibro- mide and ethylene dichloride along with carbon disulphide. For this purpose, a distinct stage common for all the five species, i.e. tenerials of C. tripunctatus, C. limbatus, C. cognatus, C. sugillatus and C. posticus, were selected as experimental material. At a time, different quantities of one of the fumigants were injected into the blocks, forming five sets. Each block in a set contained two tenerials of one species. Thus, the quantity of each of the three fumigants, lethal at the end of 48 hours for different species, was determined.

Observations

i) Total pupation period

The experiments have shown that only larvae, which had stopped feeding readily burrowed into the earth-blocks for metamorphosis after a day of exploration. The total period of confinement in the case of C. tripunctatus varied between 19-34 days, and in C. cognatus and C. limbatus, the period varied between 28 to 32 days. With other two species, C. sugillatus and C. posticus, the period ranged from 25-32 days. In no case did the larvae penetrate the soil beyond 7-8 cm. Water temperature at the time of emergence of the adults varied from 29- 30°C.

ii) Total period of metamorphosis and the duration of pupal and

imago stages in different Cybister larvae

The artificially introduced larvae started reshaping the interior of the artificial cells by making the inner facet smooth, and then lay coil- ed at the bottom, at the end of 24 hours’ activity. This behaviour was indicative of their undergoing normal metamorphosis, outwardly mani- fested by the presence of a secondary cap underneath the clay-tablet, placed over the opening of the artificial cell, immediately after con- finement.

Observations at one day intervals subsequently have shown that in the case of C. tripunctatus pupa was formed on the 9th day, and the adult on 18th day. In C. sugillatus and C. posticus, pupa was seen on 12th day and the imago on 24th day. With both C. cognatus and

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

65

C. limbatus, the pupation took place on 15th day and the moulting into imago on 27th day. In all these cases, the newly formed adults remain- ed in pupal cells for varying number of days before emergence. The larval skin after pupation is stuck into the inner wall of the pupal cell, whereas the pupal exuvium is seen underneath the imago in all the species.

iii) The lethality of carbon disulphide, at the end of 48 hours for dif- ferent metamorphosing stages of C. tripunctatus (Table 1) (Fig. 1).

Preliminary experiments, to find out whether there was any in- verse relationship between increasing doses of the fumigant and de- creasing survival periods, showed that at the end of 24 hours of fumi- gant action there was no mortality with 2, 4, 6 and 8 ml of the fumi- gant, whereas at the end of 48 hours, mortality occurred invariably with each of these quantities of the fumigant for different metamor- phosing stages comprising 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 day stages showing that this period was necessary for fumigant diffusion. Similar experi- ments with formaldehyde, another common fumigant, have shown that there was no lethal effect during the entire period of observation.

In experiments with 8th and 17th day stages, contained in the pupal cells, the quantities of carbon disulphide (0.75 and 2.0 m) determined previously as lethal at the end of 48 hours, were injected. At the end of this period, that is on the 10th and 19th days, the dead insects were examined, and it was observed that these had not moulted respectively into pupa and imago, showing that metamorphosis was arrested during the entire period of fumigation.

Table 1

Quantities of carbon disulphide lethal at the end of 48 hours for dif- ferent stages during metamorphosis in case of Cybister tripunctatus.

Age in days of	Quantity of	Age in days of	Quantity of
metamorphosis-	the fumigant	metamorphosis-	the fumigant
stage	in ml	stage	in ml
1	2.0	11	0.75
2	2.0	12	1.0
3	2.0	13	1.0
4	2.0	14	1.0
5	1.5	15	1.5
6	1.0	16	2.0
7	1.0	17	2.0
8	0.75	18	1.0
9	0.5	19 to 35	1.0
10	0.5	Unemerged adults Emerged adult	1.0

5

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

AGE IN DAYS

Fig. 1. A graph showing comparative lethal effect of 2 ml of carbon disulphide on various metamorphic stages of Cy bister tripunctatus.

The other factor, responsible for arresting normal metamorphosis, was the opening and quick closing of the cell-tops. The 8th and 17th day prepupal and preimaginal stages failed to moult respectively into pupa and imago even at the end of 48 hours, showing that such a dis- turbance retarded the normal pace of metamorphosis.

Table 2

Comparative toxicity Cybister species,	OF THREE FUMIGANTS IN (at the end of 48 hours	CASE OF TENERIALS OF FIVE OF FUMIGANT ACTION)
Cybister species	Fumigants	Quantity in ml
1 . Cybister	Carbon disulphide	1.0
tripunctatus	Ethylene dichloride	0.75
	Ethylene dibromide	0.5
2 . C. cognatus	Carbon disulphide	0.5
and	Ethylene dichloride	0.75
3. C. limbatus	Ethylene dibromide	0.5
4 . C. sugillatus	Carbon disulphide	0.5
and	Ethylene dichloride	0.75
5 . C. posticus	Ethylene dibromide	0.5

Experiments were conducted, based on preliminary observations, to determine the quantities of carbon disulphide lethal at the end of 48 hours for different stages contained in 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks (covered with polythene sheets after fumigant injections). The results are given in Table 1. It can be seen from this Table that 9th and 10th day stages requiring a lethal quantity of only 0.5 ml of the fumigant are the least tolerant and l-4th and 16- 17th day stages requiring 2 ml

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

67

of carbon disulphide are the most tolerant. Similar experiments on adults (emerged), confined in the artificial pupal cells in the blocks, have shown that even 1 ml of the fumigant was lethal at the end of 48 hours. These results are illustrated in fig. 1.

iv) Comparative toxicity of the three fumigants on unemerged ima- gines of different Cybister species (Table 2).

From table 2, it can be seen that the quantities of carbon disulphide, ethylene dichloride and ethylene dibromide lethal for different species were 0.5- 1.0, 0.75 and 0.5 ml, respectively, showing that ethylene dibro- mide is the most toxic and ethylene dichloride, the least, except in case of C. tripunctatus.

Discussion and conclusions

Studies on metamorphosing behaviour of different last instar Cybis- ter larvae, were made by conducting a series of laboratory experiments, so that a suitable method for their eradication from infested moist soil above water level in fish nurseries could be devised.

Initial experiments were conducted for determining the total periods of confinement in the earth above the water level, after the mature larva constructed a pupal cell for undergoing post-larval development. These experiments were of considerable significance, as different Cybis- ter larvae, which could not be identified to their respective species in immature condition could be identified as belonging to five different species from their adults. Amongst the five species of larvae, Cybister tripunctatus resembles the larvae of C. cognatus and C. limbatus except for its size, measuring on an average about 5 cm in length, whereas the larvae of the latter two species are the largest of all the Cybister larvae measuring about 7-8 cm in length. Both C. cognatus and C. lim- batus larvae resemble each other except that C. cognatus is slightly smaller, and possesses conspicuous longitudinal stripes on the dorsal side. Their adults also appear almost identical except for minor dif- ferences in abdominal colour. Larvae of C. sugillatus and C. posticus also resemble each other, measuring 4.5 cm in length on an average. The larva of C. posticus is slightly larger than C. sugillatus and pos- sess conspicuous stripes on its dorsal side. The larvae of both species can, however, be distinguished from other Cybister larvae, by their distinct black and sclerotized head.

The total period of confinement determined, from the time of last instar larval internment to that of emergence as an adult, varied con- siderably in case of C. tripunctatus, being in the range of 19-43 days, whereas with both C. cognatus and C. limbatus, the variation was in

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

the narrow range of only 28-32 days. At the time of emergence of the adults the water temperature was seen to be around 29-30°C.

Considering that the total period of confinement in the earth above the water level are variable, in different Cybister larvae, further series of experiments were started to ascertain whether the duration of moult- ing into pupa and adults were also variable. For this purpose, a tech- nique of inducing the mature larvae to undergo metamorphosis in the artificial cells (with similar dimensions of natural cell, i.e. 2x3 cm), prepared in 20 x 15 x 12 cm size earthen blocks, was developed, thus facilitating greatly, further series of experiments. During the metamor- phosis period, observations at 24 hour intervals have revealed that C. tripunctatus had the shortest period for metamorphosis, the pupa and adult being formed on 9th and 18th day, respectively, whereas with the other two C. co gnat us and C. limbatus, the period was 15 and 27 days respectively. During experimental period water temperature varied around 29-30°C.

These results show that although total period of metamorphosis was constant for each species, the period of confinement of the adult (tenerials), were variable as indicated by the previous series of experi- ments. Thus, the adult of C. tripunctatus remains unemerged for vary- ing periods up to 15 days as against other species which remain quis- cent for varying periods up to 8 days.

From the number of days required for the emergence after imago formation, it can be seen that after the pupa moults into adult, it remains in confinement for a minimum period of about 24 hours. Further con- finement for varying periods prior to emergence may be dependent upon factors such as temperature.

These observations on metamorphosing behaviour of different mature Cybister larvae, thus formed the basis for undertaking further studies on their eradication. For this purpose, C. tripunctatus was chosen, as it occurred in large numbers in fish nurseries.

Formaldehyde and carbon disulphide, were selected as fumigants. Formaldehyde is commonly used as soil fumigant in agriculture to control root pests. Similarly, carbon disulphide is a well-known fumi- gant, used for the purpose since 1925 (Fleming 1926, Gough 1945).

Preliminary experiments have shown that; (1) a period of 48 hours was required for lethal action of different doses of carbon disulphide, possibly due to time taken for initial diffusion of the fumigant vapour through the substance of the block, before concentrating in the cavities of the pupal cells, till mortality occurred; (2) Even 6-8 ml of formalde- hyde was not lethal at the end of 48 hours, thus ruling out its use for application in the field and; (3) during the experimental period of 48 hours of fumigation, different stages remained unadvanced in meta- morphosis due to two factors, the disturbance caused by opening and

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

69

rapid closure of the cell and sublethal concentration of the fumigant vapour in the cell.

With these points in view, different quantities of carbon disulphide were injected in the centre of the blocks (covered subsequently with polythene sheets), containing different metamorphosing stages from 1-8 days and unemerged as well as emerged adults.

These experiments revealed that the quantities of carbon disul- phide lethal at the end of 48 hours for different metamorphosing stages, were variable. The 8th and 9th day stages were the least tolerant, even 0.5 ml of the fumigant being lethal, whereas l-4th and 16- 17th day stages were the most tolerant requiring not less than 2 ml of carbon disulphide. The remaining stages required 0.75, 1.0 or 1.5 ml of this fumigant depending upon their capacity of resistance. However, in case of majority of the stages, comprising unemerged as well as emerged adults, 1.0 ml of the fumigant was quite lethal.

The common lethal quantity for all the metamorphosing stages, was 2 ml of carbon disulphide per 20 x 15 x 12 cm size block of late- rite soil, containing any of the stages, for bringing about mortality at the end of 48 hours.

A final series of experiments on comparative toxicity of the three fumigants on common stages in metamorphosis, i.e. tenerials of five Cybister species, showed that 0.5 ml of ethylene dibromide as well as carbon disulphide were lethal at the end of 48 hours, for all the species except C. tripunctatus, which required at least 1 ml of carbon disul- phide, whereas for ethylene dichloride, the lethal quantity at the end of 48 hours was 0.75 ml. This indicated that ethylene dibromide is the most toxic and ethylene dichloride, the least.

The use of ethylene dibromide would not only be more effective but also economically feasible. This fumigant again unlike carbon disul- phide, has no obnoxious odour and is not inflammable. This chemical has been in use as a soil fumigant in agriculture since 1945 (Shepard 1951).

For application in the field the following recommendation can be made. In fish nurseries the soil above the water line may be marked into units, each corresponding to 20 x 15 x 12 cm size block. Then 2 ml of the fumigant can be conveniently injected in the centre of each of these units (at a depth of nearly 7 cm) with subsequent coverage of the whole strip of 15 cm wide, infested with metamorphosing stages, with plastic sheet or gunny cloth, which can be fastened to the surface of the soil by applying nails along both the edges. Since metamorphosis from last instar larva onwards, in case of C. tripunctatus extends up- to 18 days with a few additional days for unemerged adults, further fumigation can be done at intervals of about 18 days. In fish nurseries, the whole period of spawn to fry stage would not take more than 18

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

days even if two crop rotations are taken. Hence, an initial application of the fumigant, prior to stocking of the spawn and a second after about 18 days would be sufficient to check the menace of emerging adults of C. tripunctatus in fish nurseries.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific Officer, in the department of Fisheries for his encouragement in carry- ing out this work. I also take this opportunity to thank Dr. T. G. Vazirani of Zoological Survey of India for his assisance in identifi- cation of imagines of Cy bister spp.

References

Fleming, W. E. (1926) : A homo- London, geneous carbon disulphide emulsion. Shepard, H. H. (1951) : The che- /. Agr. Research 55:17-20. mistry and action of Insecticides, Mc-

Gough, H. C. (1945) : A review Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, of the Literature on Soil Insecticides, Toronto, London.

Pseudobrassaiopsis - A new genus of Araliaceae with a note on the status of Euaraliopsis Hutch.1

R. N. Banerjee

Central National Herbarium, Howrah 3

J. Hutchinson (1967) treated a group of Araliaceaeous plants with leaves digitately lobed or fid formerly included under Brassiopsis Dene. & Planch, sensu lato as belonging to a distinct genus. He named his new genus as Euaraliopsis quite aware of the name given by Kurz (1870). Kurz had not furnished a description of the genus and Hut- chinson described it in English. In accordance with Art. 36 of ICBN (1966) a latin diagnosis with points of alliance is to be supplied to valid- ate the genus Euaraliopsis Hutch. It is, however, noted that Hutchinson rejected the name Araliopsis of Kurz and gave the genus a new name Euaraliopsis which means allied to Araliopsis. But as no legitimate genus of that name exists, naming of the new genus as Euaraliopsis is also not appropriate.

I therefore proposed another name for this genus as Pseudobrassai- opsis to indicate its close relationship with Brassaiopsis Dene. & Planch. A latin diagnosis is given below:

Pseudobrassaiopsis gen. nov.

Araliopsis Kurz, Andaman Rep. App. 39. 1870 nom. nud. Euaraliopsis Hutch. Gen. FI. Pis. 2:80. 1967; Balak. in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67(1): 60. 1970 nom. illeg., nom. rej. prop.

Affine generi Brassaiopsi, a quo differt foliis digitatim dissectis vel lobatis.

Arbores, frutices'vel plante volubiles; rami et petiole saepe valde aculeati; folia digitatim dissecta vel lobata, raro tantum dentata; in- dumentum interdum stellatum; stipulae nonnunquam durae et persis- tentes; umbellae paniculatae; bractae parvae vel nullae; flores saepe polygami; calyx ad marginem 5-dentatus; petala 5, valvata; stamina 5, ovarium biloculare; fructus subglobosi vel obovoidei.

Accepted April 13, 1973.

72 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Type: Pseudobrassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.

distribution: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Malay Peninsula, Indo- China and China.

1. Pseudobrassaiopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.

Hedera hainla Buch. Ham. ex D. Don Prodr. 187. 1825. Euaraliopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) Hutch. Gen. FI. Pis. 2:624. 1967.

Brassaiopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) Seem, in J. Bot. 2: 291. 1864, Revis. Heder. 18. 1868, pro. parte;

Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 2:735. 1879; Harms in Nat. Pflanzen fam. 3(8) 43. 1894.

Panax hainla (D. Don) DC. Prodr. 4:203. 1830.

Panax crucifolia Griff. Itin. Notes 2:145. 1848. distribution: India, Nepal and China.

2. Pseudobrassaiopsis hispida (Seem.) R. N. Ban. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis hispida seem. 1. c. 292; Clarke in Hook. f. 1. c. 736. distribution: India, Sikkim, Bhutan and China.

3. Pseudobrassaiopsis alpina (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis alpina Clarke in 1. c. 736.

Euaraliopsis alpina (Clarke) Balak. 1. c. 60. distribution: India and Sikkim.

4. Pseudobrassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) R. N. Ban. comb. nov. Hedera polyacantha Wall. PI. As. Rar. 2:82. t. 190. 1831.

Panax palmatum Roxb. Hort. Beng. 21. 1814, nom. nud., FI. Ind. 2:74. 1832.

Brassaiopsis palmata (Roxb.) Kurz in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 39(2): 77. 1870; Clarke 1. c. 735; Harms 1. c. 43.

Brassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) Ban. in. Ind. For. 93(5): 341. 1967 Syn. nov.

distribution: India, Burma, Nepal, China and Malay Peninsula.

5. Pseudobrassaiopsis andamanica (R. N. Ban.) R. N. Ban. comb.

nov.

Brassaiopsis andamanica R. N. Ban. in. Ind. For. 94(10): 775. 1968. Syn. nov.

distribution: India, Nepal, Burma, China and Malay Peninsula.

6. Pseudobrassaiopsis griffithii (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis griffithii Clarke 1. c. 736.; Harms 1. c. 43.

Euaraliopsis griffithii (Clarke) Balak. 1. c. 60. distribution: India and Burma.

PSEUDOBRASSAIOPSIS GEN. NOV.

73

7. Pseudobrassaiopsis mitis (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis mitis Clarke, 1. c. 736.

Euaraliopsis mitis (Clarke), Balak. 1. c. 60. distribution: India, Indo-China and China.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr S. K. Mukerjee, Retired Scientist and Ex- Keeper, C. N. H. for his guidance and to Dr N. C. Majumdar for latin transcription of the description.

References

Hutchinson, J. (1967) : Araliaceae. Genera of Flowering Plants 2:80, 624. Oxford.

Kurz, S. (1870) : Report on the

vegetation of Andaman Islands 39. App. B IX Calcutta.

Lanjouw, J. et al. (1966) : Inter- national Code of Botanical Nomen- clature. Utrecht-Nederlands.

Belly-soaking in the C haradriiformes 1

G. L. Maclean

Department of Zoology , University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg,

South Africa

Belly-soaking consists in wetting the belly feathers for the purpose of transporting water to eggs or chicks. It occurs regular- ly in the sandgrouse for watering the chicks. It occurs also in the Charadriiformes among the families Charadriidae, Glareolidae, Recurvirostridae, Laridae, Sternidae and Rynchopidae. Its main function appears to be for cooling the eggs or young; whether the young also drink the water provided by the parents in 'this way has not been proven. Belly-soaking appears to be absent from all other orders of birds. Its presence may be further evidence for placing the sandgrouse (Pteroclididae) in the order Charadrii- formes, as suggested by Gatter (1971). The origins of belly- soaking are discussed.

Introduction

Ever since I began field studies on the sandgrouse (Pteroclididae) (Maclean 1968), I have been interested in water transport by birds in their belly feathers (see Cade & Maclean 1967). In view of my con- clusions that the sandgrouse are actually Charadriiformes, or at least very closely related to them (Maclean 1967), it is interesting, if not significant, that the only taxon of birds other than the Pteroclididae in which belly-soaking occurs regularly is the Charadriiformes. The suggestion that Ixobrychus exilis in the United States also transports water in its belly feathers rests on a misinterpretation of the single observation by Weller (1961) of a male Least Bittern which waded into water about a metre deep on a very hot day, in an apparent attempt to cool itself before returning to its young. This behaviour does not seem to have constituted belly-soaking in the present sense. “Belly- soaking” refers here to deliberate wetting of the ventral plumage for the purpose of water transport to eggs or young. The term excludes incidental wetting of the ventral plumage in aquatic birds, or in species which do not use the water for watering eggs or young.

1 Accepted April 30, 1973.

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRUFORMES

75

Occurrence of Belly-soaking

Belly-soaking has been observed in six families of the order Chara- driiformes, excluding the Pteroclididae, namely: Charadriidae, Glareo- lidae, Recurvirostridae, Laridae, Sternidae and Rynchopidae. The first three families belong to the suborder Charadrii, the last three to the suborder Lari. For convenience I shall deal with the published infor- mation by families.

1 . Charadriidae

(a) Charadrius

Only two species of Charadrius have been shown to soak their bellies. Dharmakumarsinhji (1964) writes that C. alexandrinus near Bhavanagar in Gujarat has a frequent changeover at the nest during the hot hours of the day, and that the relieving bird “would often have its breast wet to keep the eggs moist”. Hobbs (1972) suggests that the same species in southeastern Australia may do the same thing, but his evidence is indirect, based on the muddy coating of eggs which, however, may be attributed to nesting on a damp substrate.

The most remarkable account of belly-soaking outside of the sand- grouse family is that of Gatter (1971) in C. dubius. He observed a breeding population near Plochingen on the Neckar in West Germany. Between 1200 and 1400 hours on what he considered to be a hot day (29.2°C in the shade), both parents at a nest with newly hatched chicks took it in turns to run to a nearby pool, soak their belly feathers by running quickly through the water, and then run or fly back to the young, which they brooded with their wet plumage, ostensibly to keep them cool.

Pitman (1965) indicates that C. pecuarius in Zambia “seemed. . . . to have wet breasts” when coming to relieve the mate at the nest in very hot weather.

(b) Vanellus

Five species of Vanellus have been observed soaking their belly plumage for the purpose of wetting their eggs or young. During a single period of observation on the Benue River in Nigeria, Serle (1939) watched V. albiceps make about 12 trips from its nest to the river where it dipped its breast and belly several times in the water, then dipped its bill, and finally walked back to its egg. This took place at 1300 hours in the heat of the day. Bainbridge (1965) recorded similar behaviour in this species on the Zambezi River, but only when the sun was shin- ing and air temperatures were over 32°C in the shade; eggs were not wetted on a cloudy day when the air temperature was less than 32°C.

At two nests of V. spinosus in Egypt, during hot July weather, Crossley (1964) saw the adults go several times to the water to wet the belly feathers immediately before returning to the nest; Dharmakum-

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

arsinhji (1964) recorded identical behaviour in V. indicus at Bhavnagar. Jayakar & Spurway (1965a, b) noted the same thing in V. malabaricus between 1114 and 1605 hours at one nest where the male parent wetted the eggs twice and the female eight times; the source of water was a wet concrete pavement under a dripping tap. The birds would soak their feathers for up to 10 min at a time before returning to relieve the mate at the nest. Red lateritic mud was conspicuous on both the eggs and the parents’ belly feathers. This behaviour was seen only in April, the hot season, and even occurred after all four chicks of the brood had hatched.

Wright (1963) recorded wetting of eggs and young in V. senegallus in Zambia. The parent soaked its abdominal feathers in a water-filled hippo track and then settled onto the eggs and chicks. When the parents left the chicks for 10 or 15 min, the chicks died of heat exposure.

Dresser (1902) writes of V. leucurus in the breeding season: “Dur- ing the hottest part of the day it either rests on the shores of the lakes or in water which reaches up to its bellly.” This may be no more than a suggestive coincidence, but Dresser does not mention that birds that have been resting thus in water have then gone to a nest with eggs.

2. GlareoJidae

(a) Pluvianus

In a footnote to a short communication by Abdulali (1939), to certain terns, using their belly feathers as the transport mechanism, the Editors of J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. state that “the Egyptian Plover ( Pluvianus aegyptius ) is said to moisten its eggs in a similar manner”. They give no reference to their source of information. However, Butler (1931) mentions that this species regurgitates water onto the sand under which the eggs are buried.

(b) Glareola

Dharmakumarsinhji (1964) says that the parents at a nest of Gla- reola lactea changed over on the eggs about every 25 to 35 min during the hot hours of the day, and that the incoming bird would often have its breast wet. A similar, but rather inconclusive statement has been made about G. pratincola at a breeding colony in Zambia (Pitman 1965).

3. Recurvirostridae

Dharmakumarsinhji (1964), again observing in Gujarat, writes that changeover between the parents at a nest of Himantopus himantopus was frequent in the heat of the day, and that both parents would wet their belly feathers before returning to the nest, “by bobbing down to the water while wading.”

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRIIFORMES

77

4. Laridae

The only account of belly-soaking in the gulls is that of Meinertz- hagen (1954), who mentioned that parents in a colony of Lams genei on Bahrain Island have been seen sprinkling their eggs with sea water during the heat of the day.

5. Sternidae

Three observers have independently recorded belly-soaking in Sterna albijrons for the purpose of taking water back to the eggs (Abdulali 1939; Dharmakumarsinhji 1964; Tompkins 1942). The plum- age was wetted either in flight or when wading into the water. Abdulali (1939) recorded a changeover of the parents every minute or so throughout an hour’s observation period on Salsette Island off the west coast of India.

Currie (1916) found the eggs of Sterna acuticauda near Lahore “besprinkled all over with water.” In more general terms, Lowther (1949), who photographed extensively on the Jumna River in northern India, wrote that “the parent terns and skimmers do overtime splash- ing water over their eggs and young” during sandstorms in the heat of summer.

6. Rynchopidae

Ali & Ripley (1969b) state specifically of Rynchops albicollis that the parents soak their ventral plumage and splash water over the eggs and young to keep them cool.

Functions of Belly-soaking

The one environmental factor associated with belly-soaking and subsequent wetting of eggs or chicks in the Charadriiformes in all accounts that I have read has been intense heat, but only Ali & Ripley (1969b), Crossley (1964), Gatter (1971) and Tompkins (1942) suggest that the function of this behaviour is to cool the eggs or young. Tomp- kins (1942) adds that wetting may serve also to replace moisture lost from the egg by evaporation.

The latitudes and approximate climatic conditions of the main study areas mentioned in the literature are shown in Table 1. The driest region is around Bhavnagar in Gujarat, India, but even this has a mean annual rainfall of over 500 mm. All the other regions in Table 1 are wetter than this and some, like Georgia, U.S.A., are very wet indeed. Evaporation therefore seems to constitute a smaller hazard to the eggs and young of birds than overheating. The lethal effects of overheating on plover chicks has been shown clearly by Wright (1963). The best

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

direct evidence is probably that of Bainbridge (1965). The main func- tion of belly-soaking in ground nesting birds would thus appear to be cooling.

Table 1

Places in which belly-soaking has been observed in the Charadriiformes,

SHOWING LATITUDES AND APPROXIMATE CLIMATES

Locality	Latitude	Mean midsummer temperature °C	Mean annual rainfall cm
Plochingen, West Germany	49 °N	18-22° (warm)	75-100
Benue River, Nigeria	9°N	22-27° (hot)	100-200
Georgia, U.S.A.	30-35°N	27° (v. hot)	200-300
Bhubaneswar, India	20°N	27° (v. hot)	100-200
Jumna River, India	26°N	27° (v. hot)	100-200
Bhavnagar, India	22°N	27° (v. hot)	50-100
Kafue National Park, Zambia	15-16°S	22-27° (hot)	100-150
Victoria Falls, Zambia	18°S	22-27° (hot)	75-100

This conclusion is partly confirmed by the fact that sea water as well as fresh water is used for egg-wetting. Apart from the fact that the egg shell and membranes are only slightly permeable to water, so that evaporation from within and penetration of water from outside are very slow, the osmotic differences between the egg albumen [freezing point about -0.45 °C (Romanoff & Romanoff 1967)] and sea water (freezing point about -2°C) are such that water would tend to pass out of the egg rather than into it when sea water was applied to the shell. Further confirmation is the fact that Charadrius dubius seems to wet its chicks in the same way as other charadriiforms wet their eggs under the stress of high ambient temperatures, although of only about 29°C, which in other parts of the world in which belly-soaking has been recorded would not constitute a hot day. Air temperature of only 29 °C accompanied by high relative humidity would certainly not result in a dangerously high rate of evaporation from a bird’s egg ( cf . Roma- noff & Romanoff 1949:380).

Tompkins (1942) implies that skimmers, oystercatchers, plovers and nightjars “using a similar nesting ground” to Sterna albifrons in Georgia do not need to counteract evaporation from their eggs by wet- ting them as the terns do, because their eggs have much thicker shells. I do not believe that actual measurements would substantiate this claim — certainly it is hard to believe that a nightjar could lay a thicker- shelled egg than a tern. In any case skimmers and plovers in other

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHA RADR11FORMES

79

parts of the world have indeed been seen wetting their eggs (Dharma- kumarsinhji 1964; Lowther 1949).

Discussion

Nearly all the species of birds that regularly transport water in their belly feathers nest near water, or fly daily to water to drink. They thus have contact with water at least once daily even if, like the sandgrouse, they are not primarily birds of waterside habitats. The main exception to this rule is Vanellus malabaricus which is not a waterside breeder as a rule (Ali & Ripley 1969a), but is sufficiently adaptable to capita- lize on the water from a dripping tap when it is available. What does V. malabaricus do for water in the absence of any artificial supply in a habitat such as a fallow field?

An even more interesting question is: How have those species of charadriiforms that nest in hot regions in the complete absence of water become adapted at the egg stage to high temperatures without the need for water-cooling? I am thinking here especially of the cour- sers; but the same question could apply to any desert bird, even the sandgrouse which, as far as I know, do not moisten their eggs during incubation.

The answer cannot lie simply in the thickness of the egg shell as suggested by Tompkins (1942), since even such small ground-nesting birds as larks survive adequately without the need to wet their eggs in any way. It may, however, lie in a reduced permeability of the egg shell and egg membranes to water loss (and therefore probably to water uptake — hence the absence of egg-wetting), or more likely to an increased resistance of the embryo to high temperatures. Accurate measurements of embryonic tolerance to high temperatures are needed to show what differences exist among the charadriiforms, if any. It is also necessary to know at what ambient air temperature belly-soaking is initiated, and how this temperature correlates with embryonic tem- perature tolerance.

Another possible factor is the thermoregulatory ability of the adults at high temperatures. Desert forms may be more efficient at keeping their own body temperatures lower than non -desert forms, for example.

The possibility of egg-wetting serving to counteract the effects of water lost by evaporation cannot be ruled out as a cofactor; here again quantitative data are essential.

A check of the breeding seasons and distributions of charadriiforms in which belly-soaking has been recorded shows that they are mostly spring to summer breeders in the northern hemisphere (see also Table 1), so that they have eggs or young when air temperatures are high, espe- cially in India where the habit is most widespread. Most southern Afri-

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

can charadriiforms nest from about midwinter (July) to late spring when air temperatures are relatively low. Although the charadriiforms of south America are mainly spring and summer nesters, the climate is generally mild. These facts may account for the apparent absence of belly-soaking in these southern hemisphere forms, and support fur- ther the idea that its function is primarily one of cooling. But belly- soaking has not been established in Australian charadriiforms, many of which nest in summer.1

One might also expect equatorial charadriiforms of both hemis- pheres to practise belly- soaking. It has been suggested for Pluvianus aegyptius (Butler 1931), and has been recorded in Vanellus albiceps at 9°N (Serle 1939) and at 18°S (Bainbridge 1965), and in V. sene- gallus at about 15°S (Wright 1963), but surprisingly has not been seen in these species elsewhere in their range, nor in any other species of charadriiforms in Africa or tropical America as far as I know. This may reflect a scarcity of observers in these regions, rather than an absence of the behaviour pattern, so that it should be carefully looked for in future.

What about the origin of belly- soaking? Since it is a transport mechanism whose function seems to be mainly one of cooling, the suggestion of Tompkins (1942) that “the origin of the practice may be merely the wish of the bird to cool herself” is probably correct. The incidental wetting of the ventral plumage in Ixobrychus exilis while the parent bird was wading in deep water to cool itself on a hot day (Weller 1961) seems to offer some small confirmation of the idea.

An alternative suggestion is that belly-soaking might have been de- rived from bathing behaviour (Cade & Maclean 1967). This idea and the previous idea are not mutually exclusive, except that, in my ex- perience in southern Africa, birds bathe more frequently in cold weather than in hot. However, I have seen a type of “bathing” in both Chara- drius tricollaris and Vanellus armatus that resembled exactly the belly- soaking movements of sandgrouse, involving wetting the belly plumage only, without any of the head and wing movements typical of other birds. These plovers were doing this on cold days in July and April respectively. Was this belly-soaking or bathing? If the former, what was its purpose? On neither occasion did the bird go to a nest follow- ing the behaviour. If it was bathing, it was manifested in only the most rudimentary form. The matter is clearly in need of closer attention.

1 In December 1974 I saw a Charadrius melanops in New South Wales soak its belly feathers before flying to the nest to relieve its mate.

(Note added in proof)

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRIIFORMES 31

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Wasseraufnahme im Bauchgefieder zum Zweck des Wasser- transports, eine Funktion, die ich “Belly-soaking” genannt habe, kommt nur unter den Flughuhnern nud den Charadriiformes vor. Diese Wasserspeicherung unter den Charadriiformes dient hauptsachlich zur Kiihlung der Eier oder Kiiken. Ob die Jungen auf dieser Weise auch getrankt werden, ist noch nicht festgestellt worden. Wassertransport im Bauchgefieder fehlt scheinbar in alien anderen Vogelordnungen; sein Vorkommen scheint ein weiterer Verwandtschaftsbeweis zwischen den Pteroclididae und den Cha- radriiformes zu bilden, wie schon von Gatter (1971) vorgesch- lagen ist. Das Entstehen dieses eigenartigen Verhalten wird dis- kutiert.

References

Abdulali, H. (1939) : The sun as a mortality factor among young birds. /. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 47:433-434.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969a) : Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

(1969b):

Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Bainbridge, W. R. (1965) : Nesting behaviour of the White-headed Watt- led Plover. Puku 3:171-173.

Butler, A. L. (1931): The chicks of the Egyptian Plover. Ibis 1 (13th Series): 345-347.

Cade, T. J. & Maclean, G. L. (1967) : Transport of water by adult sandgrouse to their young. Condor 69: 323-343.

Crossley, R. (1964) : Spur- winged Plovers wetting their feathers before incubating. Brit. Birds 57: 515-516.

Currie, A. J. (1916): The birds of Lahore and the vicinity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24:561-577.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S. (1964): Some observations on the Small In- dian Pratincole ( Glareola lactea Tem- minck) and some other waders breed- ing in Bhavnagar, Gujarat. Pavo 2 : 1-11.

Dresser, H. E. (1920): On some rare Palaearctic birds’ eggs. Ibis 2 (8th Series): 177-180.

Gatter, W. (1971) : Wassertrans- port beim Flussregenpfeifer ( Char ad - rius dubius). Vogelwelt 92: 100-103.

Hobbs, J. N. (1972) : Breeding of Red-capped Dotterel at Fletcher’s Lake, Dareton, NSW. Emu 72: 121- 125.

Jayakar, S. D. & Spurway, H. (1965a) : The Yellow- wattled Lap-

wing, a tropical dry-season nester [ Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), Charadriidae] . I. The locality, and the incubatory adaptations. Zool. Jb. Syst. 92:53-72.

(1965b) : The Yellow- wattled Lap-

wing, Vanellus malabaricus (Bod- daert) , a tropical dry-season nester. II. Additional data on breeding bio- logy. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 1-14.

Lowther, E. H. N. (1949) : A bird photographer in India. Oxford Uni- versity Press, London.

Maclean, G. L. (1967): Die sys- tematische Stellung der Flughuhner (Pteroclididae). J. Orn. 793:203-217.

(1968): Field stu- dies on the sandgrouse of the Kala- hari Desert. Living Bird 7: 209-235.

6

82 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Meinertzhagen, R. (1954) : Birds of Arabia. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh.

Pitman, C. R. S. (1965): The eggs and nesting habits of the St. Helena Sand-Plover or Wirebird, Charadrius pecuarius sanctac-helenae (Harting) . Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 85: 121-129.

Romanoff, A. L. & Romanoff, A. J. (1949) : The avian egg. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

(1967): Biochemistry of the

avian embryo. John Wiley & Sons,

New York.

Serle, W. (1939): Field observa- tions on some northern Nigerian birds. Ibis 7959:654-699.

Tompkins, I. R. (1942) : Least

Tern watering eggs: Gideon Mabbett’s query. Auk 59:308.

Weller, M. W. (1961): Breeding biology of the Least Bittern. Wilson Bull. 73: 11-35.

Wright, P. J. (1963): Nesting be- haviour of the Wattled Plover. Puku 7:218.

Observations on the occurrence and habits of juvenile fishes in the nearshore region

of the Mandapam area "1 2

K. V. Sekharan

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin-18

During 1952-55, I made a study of the juvenile fishes and their habits in the nearshore region in the Mandapam area. The study, confined mainly to the Palk Bay was facilitated largely because of the existence of a fishery exclusively for juvenile fishes, although data from other sources were also available. The present account deals with juveniles observed in the region up to about 2 km from shore during the period referred to above.

Studies were undertaken in the Palk Bay along a 5 km stretch of the coast between Munakkad and Pullamadam, and in the Gulf of Mannar at a point opposite the jetty of the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute. Three sources of data were available for this ac- count: (i) The commercial fishery, (ii) Experimental light fishing con- ducted by the C.M.F.R. Institute, and (iii) Independent observations undertaken by me during weekly sea trips at night.

(i) The commercial fishery : Juveniles are landed mainly by torch and hand-net boats (operated at night) and shore-seines (Sekharan 1955), the catches being greater during the new moon periods than during other periods. Another net operated is Ola Valai, a small shore- seine with the dragging ropes on either side having long dry palmyrah leaves attached to them. Observations on the fishery were conducted along the Palk Bay coast.

(ii) Experimental light fishing : Chellappa (1959) has described the experimental light fishing conducted in the Gulf of Mannar at Manda- pam. On a number of occasions I also made observations on the fishes caught by this method.

(iii) Independent personal observations : During weekly sea trips at night, observations were made of fishes attracted by the light from

1 Published with the permission of the Director, C.M.F.R. Institute, Cochin-18.

2 Accepted September 19, 1972.

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(1)

a 2-cell electric torch and also of fishes in the near-shore region.

Data on the important species represented in the catches are based exclusively on the samples collected from the landings of torch-and- hand-net boats and shore-seines. Samples were taken, usually once a week, at night and preserved in formalin. In the laboratory, they were sorted into species, and the total length measured. The methods adopt- ed for estimating the landed weight and number of the two important species of Sardinella which comprised the bulk of the landed catch of young fishes have been described elsewhere (Sekharan 1971).

The juveniles described here measure generally less than 70 mm. In terms of numbers and weights of all species combined, their period of peak occurrence in the Palk Bay is March- June, and only that period is referred to here in respect of the Palk Bay. In respect of the Gulf of Mannar the period referred to is January- April.

About 60 species of young fishes have been identified in the near- shore region, all common to the fish fauna of both the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar. The more common species and their length ranges are given in the table.

Observations on the shoals of juveniles

Shoals of young fishes which consisted mostly of Sardinella spp. and Stolephorus spp., and which are easily recognised as luminescent patches, were either stationary or showed random movement. The noise or vibration caused by the outboard engine (10 HP) used did not seem to scare the fish, inasmuch as no sudden movement could be noted when I collected plankton samples either directly over the shoals or very close to them.

On a few occasions, I was able to watch the sardine shoals in dif- ferent stages of encirclement by the shore-shine. The shoals touching the wide-meshed part of the wing (made of coir rope) do not show any tendency to escape; instead individual fishes could be seen darting to and fro, seeming to peck at the net and then withdrawing, when the area enclosed by the net is very wide. On the other hand, when the enclosed area becomes smaller and smaller, the fish begin to escape from the net, and could easily be collected with a cloth (Sekharan 1959). In other words, the tendency to escape seems caused not so much by a slight obstruction in the path of the shoal, but by the limitation of the area of movement. A similar reaction has been inferred from studies of demersal fishes (Manteufel & Radakov 1964).

During March- June, the sardines are less than 65 mm on the aver- age and are not normally found at the surface during dav-time

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF JUVENILE FISHES

85

Table

Gear	Species Length-range (mm)
	Sardinella albella (Val.)	18—70
	Sardinella gibbosa (Bleeker)	18—70
	Other Sardinella species	20—70
	Hilsa kelee (Cuvier)	25—65
Torch-and hand-net.	Stolephorus indica
	(Van Hasselt)	15—60
(Palk Bay)	Stolephorus spp.	10—65
	Gerres filamentosus
	Cuv. & Val.	25—60
	Gerres spp.	30—70
	Leiognathus splendens (Cuv.)	10—70
	Leiognathus spp.	8—60
	Atherina spp.	30—70
Shore-seine	The species mentioned above,
	plus
(Palk Bay & Gulf
of Mannar)	II is ha spp.	50—75
	Escualosa thoracata (Val.)	40—60
	Thrissocles spp.	30—70
	Selaroides leptolepis
	(Cuv. & Val.)	20—60
	Other Caranx spp.	25—65
	Hemirhamphus spp.	60 — 80 (from lower jaw)
	Cypselurus sp.	65—80
	Platycephalus spp.	50—65
	Plotosus spp.	50—75
	Upeneus spp.	55—75
	Teuthis spp.	60—75
	Pelates sp.	30—60
	Sitlago sp.	30—65
	Mugil spp.	20—60
	Scomberomorus spp.	65—90
Ola valai	Psammoperca waigaiensis	40—80
(Palk Bay)	Lethrinus spp.	50—200
	Lutianus spp.	50—200
	Leiognathus spp.	20—75
	Lactarius sp.	30—80
Experimental :	Sardinella gibbosa	60—90
light fishing	Stolephorus spp.	40—65
	II is ha spp.	60—80
(Gulf of Mannar)	Leiognathus spp.	30—65
	Gazza spp.	30—60
	Plotosus spp.	60—90

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

(Sekharan 1959). It would appear that the shoals break up or migrate to deeper waters during day-time. But after June, the shoals are spotted near the surface during day-time also; a change of habit with increase in size is thus apparant.

Observations on the reactions of juveniles to light

(i) In the fishery: In the fishery using light, torches made of dried palmyrah leaves are employed. When a torch is lighted near a lumines- cent patch (shoal), the juveniles rapidly move towards it and around the boat. The torch is held about 1\ metres above the surface of the water. The fishes, especially the sardines, anchovies and Atherina spp. even jump towards the light. Sometimes they crowd the entire near- shore region right up to the water’s edge. Stationed about 75 metres from a palmyrah torch, I could collect thousands with the bucket of a \ m plankton net.

(ii) During experimental light fishing : First a 300 cc kerosene petro- max light was used above the surface of the water. This was later sub- stituted by an electric bulb, with power varying from 100 to 400 watts. Later on, a submerged light with power ranging from 6 to 21 watts was used. A dip net was arranged beneath the light. It was noted that “while the submerged light by itself was not effective, a combination of this with surface illumination gave a much bigger catch than either of the lights used singly” (Chellappa 1959). Only occasionally were sardines and anchovies seen in the catches; moreover they came in ones and twos and not in shoals. Plotosus spp. on the other hand appear- ed in groups of 10-15.

(iii) Independent experiments conducted during this study : An ordinary electric torch (with two cells) was used in the Pallc Bay on dark nights. As soon as the beam strikes the water surface, Atherina spp. jump out of the water. When the beam moves along the surface, the fish along the track jump out, and falling back, create a sound like the patter of rain drops falling on water surface. Sardines were not seen during these trials, probably because they move in groups and not as individuals. Other fishes were not observed in the course of these trials.

In the evenings small sized Mugil spp. were seen along the water’s edge in the Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar.

Important fishes in the nearshore region

The data collected showed that Sardinella spp., Hilsa kelee and Stolephorus spp. comprise the bulk of the juveniles (about 85%) in

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF JUVENILE FISHES

87

the nearshore region, during the March- June period. Among them, Sardinella spp. are dominant, in terms of both numbers and mass. To some extent, this may be correlated with the food of these fishes.

Food of important species of juveniles : On a few occasions the stomach contents of different species of fishes from the nearshore re- gion were examined. The important elements are mentioned below:

Sardinella spp.

Hilsa kelee

Stolephorus spp.

Copepod nauplii and

Copepodites

Copepods

Zoea

Lamellibranch larvae Gastropod larvae Diatoms Dinoflagellates

Copepods

Zoea

Lamellibranch larvae Diatoms (only small quantities)

Lucifer spp. Copepods Other Crustacea

llisha spp.

Leiognathus spp.

Gazza spp.

Copepods

Larger crustaceans Diatoms (very few)

Copepods Decapod larvae Diatoms (very few)

Copepods Decapod larvae Diatoms (very few)

It may be seen that the conformity of the food spectrum with net plankton is more in the case of Sardinella spp. than in the case of other species, which explains, at least partly, the dominance of the former in the nearshore region.

The relative importance of Sardinella albella and S. gibbosa : Of the species of Sardinella, only Sardinella albella and S. gibbosa are important, the others forming less than 0.5 per cent of the sardine catch. Between the two species, S. albella is the more important one, on seasonal average. The ratio between the two species (in numbers) in 1952, 1953, 1954 and 1955 respectively was 7:2, 7:3, 20:19 and 13:12 in torch-and hand-net catches, and 3:2, 7:8, 17:12 and 1:5 in shore- seine catches.

Discussion

Since Sardinella spp. comprised the bulk of the biomass of juveniles in the nearshore region, the entire group may be termed the “ Sardinella complex”. It would be interesting to find whether Sardinella spp. are associated with the same or related species in other regions of the east and west coasts of India.

As Sardinella spp. occupy a lower trophic level than other fishes, the dominance of the former in the nearshore region is explicable. But

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

the dominance pattern between the two species of Sardinella in the nearshore region cannot be satisfactorily explained in terms of feeding relationships alone. Both species occur in the same haul, feed on iden- tical items with little indication of any item being taken more by one species than by the other (Sekharan 1970). Ivlev’s (1961) experiments show that the feeding of a species in an area may be adversely affected by the mere presence of another species; the effect would obviously be reflected in the magnitude of the two populations in the area. It is also generally contended by ecologists that two species with the same ecological requirements cannot co-exist in the same habitat (Gause’s theory). Therefore, on these considerations, equal abundance of the two species in the area is not to be expected. But the seasonal data indicate near parity in the relative abundance of the two species. This is of course not true of short-term periods within a season, for which the pattern is not constant; the dominant species was Sardinella albella in some periods but S. gibbosa during others, both in numbers and in biomass. Viewed in this light, the situation here would not run counter to Gause’s theory.

It was however apparent that the balance between the two species was delicate and could even be upset in the future. In the Gulf of Mannar, S. gibbosa was the dominant species of Sardinella while in the Palk Bay, the inter- specific ‘struggle’ for dominance appeared to be still on. A reversal of the observed pattern of species abundance in the Palk Bay could therefore be visualised.

The Palk Bay fishery for juveniles is a good example of commer- cial sampling of young fishes. Considerable time and expense are in- volved in the scientific survey of juveniles in fishery biological work. If commercial fisheries on the Palk Bay model could be established in areas where young fish are suspected to congregate, it would be advantageous in fisheries research work.

The recent decline in torch-and hand-net fishing (Dr. R. V. Nair, personal communication) calls for a serious study. Compared to the 1950’s the character of the fisheries in the Palk Bay had changed con- siderably in 1960’s with a concomitant increase in mechanisation of boats. The fishery for Leiognathus spp. is of much greater importance now-a-days than formerly. If the abundance of sardines has declined, it has to be determined to what extent the decrease is fishery-dependent. Similarly the effect, if any, of the recent changes in the fishing methods in the Palk Bay on the eco-system and the balance of the populations there merits an investigation,

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References

Chellappa, D. E. (1959): A note on the night fishing observations from a kelong. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 1 : 93.

Ivelev, V. S. (1961): Experimental ecology of the feeding of fishes (Trans- lated from Russian by D. Scott) . Yale University Press, New Haven, 302 pp.

Manteufel, B. P. & Radakov, D. V. (1964) : Summary account of the in- vestigations carried out in the USSR on the behaviour of fish in the zone of the fishing gear. Rapp. cons. Perm. Internat. Explor. Mer. 755:21-22.

Sekharan, K. V. (1955): Observa- tions on the Choodai fishery of Man- dapam area. Indian J. Fish., 2:115-131.

(1959) : Size-

groups of Choodai caught by different nets and in different localities, ibid. 5:1-31.

(1970): On the

rates of the sardines Sardinella albella and S. gibbosa of the Mandapam area. ibid. 75:96-141.

(1971): Growth

rates of the sardine Sardinella albella (Val.) and S. gibbosa (Bleek.) of the Mandapam area. ibid. 75:68-90.

A new species and notes on the genus Anthoxanthum L. (Poaceae)1

S. K. Jain2 and D. C. Pal Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta ( With three text-figures)

A new grass Anthoxanthum borii is described. A dichotomous key is provided for identification of the six species of the genus Anthoxanthum L.. occurring in India. Important distinguishing characters of the new species are also illustrated in a text-figure. Some critical notes on the identity of certain taxa are given.

Introduction

The genus Anthoxanthum L. was formerly included in the tribe Phalarideae of the subfamily Pooideae (Hooker, 221; Bor, 163, 1940; Hitchcock, 549); it is now placed in the tribe Aveneae (Bor, 431, 1960; Hubbard, 433).

Anthoxanthum L. is a large genus of about 50 species and numer- ous varieties (Chase & Niles 1962), distributed in almost all continents, particularly in Europe, the Mediterranean region and Old World.

The material of the genus from the herbaria at Shillong (ASSAM), Coimbatore (MH) and Calcutta (CAL) was examined; this included two type specimens of A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle and A. sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi.

Four species, namely A. clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi; A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle, A. odoratum L. and A. sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi are reported to occur in different parts of India, particularly in the eastern Himalayas and peninsular India. A. puelii Lee. & Lam., a grass from southern Europe, is comparatively a recent introduction in India.

One new species occurring in south India was discovered.

Anthoxanthum L. Gen. PI. ed. 5:17, 1754.

Annual or perennial. Leaves up to about 10 mm wide. Inflores-

1 Accepted November 14, 1972.

2 Present address : Dy. Director, B.S.L, Eastern Circle, “Woodlands’*, Laith- umkhara, Shillong, Assam.

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOXANTHUM

91

cence a spiciform or lax panicle. Spikelets oblong to linear-lanceolate, slightly laterally compressed, rhachilla disarticulating above the glumes. Glumes 2, persistent, 1-3-nerved, 1-keeled, acute or acuminate, upper longer. Florets 3, heteromorphous; first (lowest) floret male, some- times barren; lemma oblong-lanceolate, 5-7-nerved, hairy, shortly awned; palea 2-keeled, lodicules 0; stamens 3; second ( middle ) floret barren. Lemma and palea similar to that of lowest floret; awn longer, kneed, arising from near the base or from the middle. Third ( terminal ) floret hermaphrodite; Lemma much shorter than the lower two, broad- ly elliptic-lanceolate, delicately 1-7 nerved; palea 1-nerved; lodicules 0; stamens 2; styles distinct; stigmas 2, long, exserted from the tip of the spikelet, plumose. Grain ovoid, slightly laterally compressed.

Etymology : anthos : flower; xanthos: yellow, refers to pale yellow- ish inflorescence. Type species: A. odoratum L.

Key to species

1. Spikelets less than 5 mm long; awns projecting, -j- equal to the

spikelet itself A. sikkimense

1. Spikelets more than 5.5 mm long; awns projecting equal to, or much less than, the spikelet:

2. Spikelets very shortly awned, awn not projecting more than

2 mm beyond the spikelet:

3. Perennial; culms unbranched A. odoratum

3. Annual; culms branched, geniculate below A. puelii

2. Spikelets with long awns, awns projecting more than 2 mm beyond the spikelet:

4. Spikelets about 5.5 mm long; pedicels glabrous; lower and upper glumes acute (not acuminate); lemmas densely brownish hairy A. clarkei

4. Spikelets more than 6 mm long; pedicels glabrous or hairy,

lower and upper glumes acuminate, lemmas less hairy, hairs hyaline :

5. Culms unbranched; leafblades up to 5 mm broad; ligule

longer than broad; pedicels glabrous; lower glume about half as long as the upper, rarely more; inflorescence

slender loose A. hookeri

5. Culms branched; leafblades up to 10 mm broad; ligule

broader than long; pedicels hairy; lower glumes usually exceeding half the upper glume; inflorescence

congested A. borii

The distinguishing characters of the new species have also been illustrated in the plate. In the following account, the species are arrang- ed alphabetically. The new species is described in detail; for others, full descriptions are omitted as they are available in published literature, to which references have been cited.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

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Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3)

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. similis A. hookeri sed culmis ramosis, foliorum laminis latioribus, pedicellis pilosis, paniculis congestis differt.

Holotype: Pulneys, Pambar stream, near Shenthadikanal, 6-xii-1898. Bourne 1954 (CAL).

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. resembles A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle but differs in having branched culms, broad leaf blades, hairy pedicels and congested panicles.

A perennial rhizomatous grass, culms branched, erect, slender 0.6-1 m tall. Roots shallow. Leaf sheaths compressed, glabrous, slip- ping, from the culms; leaf blades linear, 8-30 cm long, 4-10 mm wide, rounded at the base, acute, glabrous or sparsely hairy; ligule truncate, membranous, hyaline, up to 3 mm long. Inflorescence a congested pani- cle, up to about 13 cm long, 2 cm wide; racemes short. S pikelets oblong- lanceolate, including the awn: 8-10 mm long, excluding the awn: 6-7 mm long, 1.5-2 mm broad, on short hairy pedicels. Lower glume ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, 4-5.5 mm long chartaceous, 1 -nerved, upper glume ovate-acuminate, 6-7 mm long, 3-nerved, 1-keeled, keel scabrid, margins broad hyaline. First ( lowest ) floret male or barren; lemma 5-6 mm long, thin, membranous, 5-nerved, mid-nerve distinct, others faint, pilose with brown hairs, 2-lobed, lobes incised, awned in the sinus, awn up to or slightly exceeding the lemma; palea hyaline, linear-lanceolate,

4-5 mm long, 2-keeled, glabrous; stamens 3 or fewer, anthers 2-2.5 mm long. Second ( middle ) floret barren, lemma 4.5-6 mm long, oblong- lanceolate, obtuse, bifid, hairy, awned from the back at about the middle or lower down, awn slender, scabrid, geniculate, 6-9 mm long. Third (upper) floret hermaphrodite, lemma almost rotund, obtuse or acute and shortly aristate, 2.5-3 mm long, hyaline, very faintly 5-7 nerved; palea lanceolate, about 2 mm long; stamens 3 or 2; anthers 2-2.5 mm; stigmas 2, long, sometimes protruding beyond the floret; lodicules not seen.

India: Tamil Nadu, Palnis, Pambar stream near Shenthadikanal, 6-xii-1898, Bourne 1954.

Distribution : India, so far endemic in Tamil Nadu.

Etymology : The grass is being named in honour of Dr. N. L. Bor, who first suspected this taxon to be new.

Critical note :

The third floret in our new species is normally unawned, but one of the sheets of Bourne (No. 1954, CAL 533452) shows the lemma of the third floret also shortly aristate. This character seems to be variable, as already recorded by Hubbard (p. 235) in an allied genus Arrhen- therum P. Beauv.

Anthoxanthum borii resembles on the one hand, A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle, and on the other, A. clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi. The following

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOXANTHUM

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

table brings out the distinguishing characters between these species and should help in identification.

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov.	Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle	Anthoxanthum clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi
Leaves up to 10 mm	4-6 mm broad		Up to 4 mm broad
broad
Panicle congested	Panicle loose		Panicle loose
Pedicels of spikelets	Glabrous		Glabrous
hairy
Spikelets 6-7 mm long	6-7 mm long		5.5 mm long
Lower glume about 2/3	Lower glume	half as	Lower glume 2/3 or
of the upper	long as upper or	more than 2/3 of
First (lowest) floret	shorter Male		the upper Neuter
male
Second (middle) lemma	4-6 mm long		3.4.5 mm long, brown
4.5-6 mm long Third (upper) lemma	More or less	lanceolate	pilose More or less lanceolate
rotund

Anthoxanthum clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi Anthoxanthum clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi in Bull. Tokyo Sci. Mus. 18:8, 1947; Bor, 431, 1960.

Hierochloe 'clarkei Hook. f. FI. Br. Ind. 7:223, 1896; Bor, 167, 1940. Specimens examined : Arunchal: Jabrang, 2744 m, 15-xi-1951, G. K. Deka ( ASSAM 20945); Arunachal: Jabrang, 16-X-1955, Seshagiri Rao 1289, ( ASSAM 20944).

Distribution : Eastern India, Burma.

Etymology : The species is named in honour of C. B. Clarke.

Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle in J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 36:380, 1904; Bor, 431, 1960.

Hierochloe hookeri (Griseb.) Clarke ex Hook. f. FI. Br. Ind. 7: 223, 1896.

Specimens examined : Sikkim, 2700-3600 m, J. D. Hooker s. n. {CAL) (Type); Sikkim: Zemu Valley, 2850 m, 9-vii-1909, Smith & Cave 1036 (CAL).

Distribution : Eastern Himalayas.

Etymology : This species is named in honour of J. D. Hooker. Critical note : The grass described by Fischer (1846) under this name is actually A. borii Jain et Pal.

Anthoxanthum odoratum L.

Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sp. PI. ed. 1, 28, 1753; Hooker, 222;

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95

Bor, 431, 1960; Hubbard, 271.

Specimens examined : Assam: Sept. 1936, N. L. Bor 13765

( ASSAM 32589); Meghalaya: Shillong, 1400-1500 m, 22-vi-1937, N. L. Bor s.n. {ASSAM 32590); Meghalaya: Shillong, 3-vi-1937, G. K. Deka 13998 (ASSAM 32592); Meghalaya: Shillong, 1500 m, 18-V-1938, G. K. Deka 20354 (ASSAM 32591); Meghalaya: Shillong 20-V-1957, G. Pani- grahi 4780 (ASSAM 23269); Madras: Nilgiri, 2400 m, 24-i-1957, K. M. Sebastine 2214 (MH 4277); Madras: Kodaikanal, 19-iii- 1950, D. Daniel, S. Roy and J. S. Rao s.n. (MH 93869); Madras; Ooty, 2220 m, 14-ix-1930, V. Narayanaswami, 4345 (MH 30312).

Distribution : All hilly regions of India; often cultivated; occasion- ally escape and run wild; Europe to Asia.

Etymology : The specific name refers to its odoriferous nature.

Anthoxanthum puelii Lecoq. et Lam.

Anthoxanthum puelii Lecoq. & Lamotte Cat. PI. Prance 385, 1847; Hubbard 269.

A. aristatum Boiss. Bor, 164, 1940.

The following sheets in the ASSAM herbarium bear the annotation A. aristatum Boiss.

1. Shillong, Morollos’ Compound, l-vi-1937, Bor 13997 (ASSAM